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Did you know other factors beyond IgG can attribute to a healthy gut in your calves? Oligosaccharides in colostrum and transition milk serve as potential mediators of a healthy calf gut. In this issue of The Colostrum Counsel, we will explain just how these factors work in optimizing the overall health of your calves.

 

The Colostrum Counsel: Oligosaccharides Explained

Calves rely on the timely feeding of good-quality colostrum to provide them with passive immunity, since there is no transfer of immunoglobulins from the dam to the calf in utero. Due to the importance of passive immunity, most research in bovine colostrum and transition milk has focused on the quantity and quality of IgG. Yet, colostrum is also rich in additional nutrients and bioactive factors that are necessary for the proper development and maturation of the gut. These factors are just beginning to gain popularity in the field of colostrum research. Among these bioactive factors are oligosaccharides (OS). These molecules are essentially “simple sugars” and have been hypothesized to play a key role in the development of the newborn gut. In particular, OS help establish healthy gut bacteria, inhibit pathogenic bacteria, and may also enhance the absorption of IgG from colostrum into the blood.

Structures and Concentrations in Colostrum

As mentioned previously, OS are simple-sugar compounds with lactose being the core structure of all OS. In order to create structurally different molecules, fucose (neutral charge) or sialic acid (acidic charge) residues are added onto the lactose core in the mammary gland. Approximately 40 different OS compounds have been identified in bovine colostrum and milk, with the majority (>70%) of bovine OS having a sialic acid residue attached (Tao et al., 2008; Figure 1). Bovine OS are different from OS produced by humans, as the carbon chains of human OS are longer and only a small amount (5-15%) have a sialic acid group attached (Ninonuevo et al., 2006).

The most abundant OS in bovine colostrum is 3’sialyllactose (3’SL), which is 4 times higher in colostrum compared to mature milk, followed by 6’sialyllactosamine (6’SLN) with the second highest concentration (Martin-Sosa et al., 2003; Figure 1). In contrast to IgG, the concentrations of OS do not decline as rapidly after the colostrum milking. In fact, it has been shown that 3’SL, 6’SLN and 6’sialyllactose (6’SL) have higher concentrations at 2 days after calving compared to 7 days after calving (Nakamura et al., 2003; Figure 2).

The majority of farms often feed 1-2 meals of colostrum after birth, followed immediately by an abrupt transition to milk replacer or whole milk. The elevated concentrations of OS, along with an abundance of additional bioactive molecules in transition milk (milkings 2-6) demonstrate that there is likely value in feeding transition milk to the gut health of young calves on farm.

Functions of Oligosaccharides

The majority of OS can reach the intestine quickly since they can resist the acidic pH of the stomach and cannot be broken down by any of the calf’s gut enzymes. Most researchers assumed the majority of the OS would reach the large intestine in tact, however Janschter-Krenn et al. (2013) demonstrated these compounds can actually change structure and may play a role in the small intestine as well. So, what exactly are these small simple sugars doing in the small and large intestines?

Energy Source for Healthy Gut Bacteria

Several beneficial groups of bacteria in the small intestine and colon have a variety of enzymes that allow them to break down OS and utilize them as an energy source. It has been shown that the beneficial bacteria Bifidobacteria can consume 3’SL, the major OS in bovine colostrum, to promote its growth (Yu et al., 2013). Moreover, recent studies demonstrated that newborn calves have a higher amount of Bifidobacteria in the small intestine when higher concentrations of OS are provided in colostrum (Fischer et al., 2018; Malmuthuge et al., 2015).

A higher amount of Bifidobacteria in the calf intestine likely contributes to an overall healthy gut bacterial community, since they are able to produce short chain fatty acids that have positive effects on colon cells, as well as stabilize the gut mucosal barrier and improve the immune system of the gut to prevent the overgrowth of pathogenic bacteria (Picard et al., 2005; Yasui et al., 1995; Boffa et al., 1992). Additionally, another beneficial group, known as Bacteroides, can uniquely use the sialic acid portion of the OS to promote their growth and establishment in the neonatal gut (Marcobal et al., 2011).

Inhibition of Pathogenic Bacteria

In addition to promoting the growth of beneficial bacteria, OS have also been shown to prevent pathogenic bacteria from establishing themselves in the gut. In order to invade the host tissues, pathogens must bind to sugars that are structurally similar to OS, known as “host glycans”, on the surface of intestinal cells. Since the structures of glycans and colostrum and milk OS are so similar, OS can act as “receptor decoys” and bind to the pathogen. This inhibits their ability to bind to the host and cause subsequent infection and disease (Zivkovic et al., 2011). Specifically, it has been demonstrated that two of the major OS in bovine colostrum and transition milk, 6’SL and 6’SLN, can block the binding of enterotoxigenic E. coli (Martin et al., 2002). Additional colostrum and milk OS can also bind to rotavirus (Huang et al., 2012), Vibrio cholera (Coppa et al., 2006), and Streptococcus pneumoniae (Andersson et al., 1986), which demonstrates their diverse capability to maintain a healthy and balanced gut microbial community.

Enhance Immune Function

As mentioned previously, beneficial gut bacteria can utilize colostrum and milk OS, which allows them to positively regulate the immune system through multiple pathways. For instance, bacteria that consume OS induce higher expressions of anti-inflammatory compounds and decrease pro-inflammatory compounds, compared to bacteria that consume an alternative energy source (Chiclowski et al., 2012). Bacteria that grow on OS can also up-regulate the amount of tight junction proteins between intestinal cells, which basically means they “tighten” the gaps so pathogenic bacteria cannot go between the intestinal cells and enter the blood stream (Chiclowski et al., 2012; Ewaschuk et al., 2008).

One fascinating aspect about the sialic acid portion of an OS is when sialic acid is bound to the intestine, it can actually enhance the binding of IgG to the intestinal cell, as well as its uptake into the cell (Gill et al., 1999). This may explain why bovine colostrum has such a high abundance of OS with sialic acid residues compared to human colostrum, in which only a small portion have sialic acid. In humans, there is passive transfer of immunoglobulins during pregnancy from the mother to the fetus, where as in bovine animals, the calf can only obtain IgG from colostrum since there is no passive transfer during pregnancy. Therefore, since the passive transfer of IgG is one of the most important factors in promoting the health and survival of the newborn calf, the high abundance of sialic acid in colostrum may actually be present to assist IgG in gaining access to the calf’s blood stream¬–kick-starting the immune system.

What about mannan-oligosaccharides?

Mannan-oligosaccharides (MOS) are frequently supplemented to the calf in milk replacer (e.g. Bio-Mos®) during the first weeks of life. In contrast to bovine-derived OS, mannan-OS are derived from the cell wall of yeast, namely Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Mannan-OS have “brush-like” structures which allow them to attach to pathogenic bacteria, such as Salmonella and E. coli, thus blocking them from binding to the intestinal cell wall and causing subsequent infection. Calves fed MOS in milk replacer show a reduction in faecal E. coli counts (Jacques et al., 1994), improvements in fecal score (Morrison et al., 2010), and better growth performance (Sellars et al., 1997).

Due to the positive effects observed when supplemented in milk replacer, researchers sought out to determine if similar effects might also be seen when supplemented in colostrum or colostrum replacer. Unfortunately, a study that supplemented MOS in colostrum replacer found no effect on passive transfer at 24h of life, or on the incidence of disease (Robichaud et al., 2014).

Moreover, additional recent studies that supplemented MOS in fresh bovine colostrum actually found a negative effect on passive transfer when compared to calves fed unsupplemented colostrum (Brady et al., 2015; Short et al., 2016). The structure of an oligosaccharide is a major determinant of biological function and the calf gut is evolutionarily tailored to respond to compounds secreted by the dam into colostrum. Since bovine-derived OS are “more natural” for the newborn dairy calf, it may be possible that their supplementation during the first days of life may lead to increased passive immunity and better gut health when compared to those supplemented with MOS.

Take Home Message

The high abundance of oligosaccharides produced by the dam into colostrum and transition milk can have positive effects on gut health, specifically by acting as an energy source for healthy gut bacteria, inhibiting pathogens, and by enhancing the immune system. Therefore, feeding transition milk or milk supplemented with a quality colostrum replacer may offer increased gut protection for the newborn calf. Additional research should focus on the possibility of supplementing OS in traditional milk replacers, or even in whole milk, to ensure maximum protection of the newborn calf gut.

 

Figures

 

Figure 1.
The structures of the two most abundant oligosaccharides in bovine colostrum and transition milk.

Figure 2.
A study conducted by Nakamura et al. (2003) determined the concentrations of the primary oligosaccharides (3’SL, 6’SL and 6’SLN) in colostrum, transition milk, and mature milk.

 

 

Amanda Fischer, MSc.

SCCL and Research Assistant at the University of Alberta
[email protected]

 

 

References
Andersson, B., O. Porras, L.A. Hanson, T. Lagergard, and C. Svanborg-Eden. 1986. Inhibition of attachment of Streptococcus pneumoniae and Haemophilus influenzae by human milk and receptor oligosaccharides. J. Infect. Dis. 153:232-237.
Boffa, L.C., J.R. Lupton, and M.R. Mariani. 1992. Modulation of colonic epithelial cell proliferation, histone acetylation, and luminal short chain fatty acids by variation of dietary fibre (wheat bran) in rats. Cancer Res. 52:5906-5912.
Brady, M.P., S.M. Godden, and D.M. Haines. 2015. Supplementing fresh bovine colostrum with gut-active carbohydrates reduces passive transfer of immunoglobulin G in Holstein dairy calves. J. Dairy Sci. 98:6415-6422.
Chiclowski, M., G. De Lartigue, J.B. German, H.E. Raybould, and D.A. Mills. 2012. Bifidobacteria isolated from infants and cultured on human milk oligosaccharides affect intestinal epithelial function. J. Pediatr. Gastroenterol. Nutr. 55:321-327.
Coppa, G.V., L. Zampini, T. Galeazzi, B. Facinelli, L. Ferrante, R. Capretti, and G. Orazio. 2006. Human milk oligosaccharides inhibit the adhesion to Caco-2 cells of diarrheal pathogens: Escherichia coli, Vibrio cholerae, and Salmonella fyris. Pediatr. Res. 59:377-382.
Ewaschuk, J.B., H. Diaz, L. Meddings, B. Diederichs, A. Dmytrash, J. Backer, M. Looijer-van Langen, and K.L. Madsen. 2008. Secreted bioactive factors from Bifidobacterium infantis enhance epithelial cell barrier function. Am. J. Physiol. Gastrointest. Liver Physiol. 295:G1025-G1034.
Fischer, A.J., N. Malmuthuge, L.L. Guan, and M.A. Steele. 2018. Short Communication: The effect of heat treatment of bovine colostrum on the concentrations of oligosaccharides in colostrum and in the intestine of neonatal male Holstein calves. J. Dairy Sci. 101:401-407.
Gill, R.K., S. Mahmood, and J.P. Nagpaul. 1999. Functional role of sialic acid in IgG binding to microvillus membranes in neonatal rate intestine. Biol. Neonate. 76:55-64.
Huang, P., M. Xia, M. Tan, W. Zhong, C. Wei, L. Wang, A. Morrow, and X. Jiang. 2012. Spike protein VP8* of human rotavirus recognizes histo-blood group antigens in a type-specific manner. J. Virol. 86:4833-4843.
Jacques, K.A. and K.E. Newman. 1994. Effect of oligosaccharide supplements on performance and health of Holstein calves pre- and post-weaning. J. Anim. Sci. 72(Suppl 1): 295.
Jantscher-Krenn, E., C. Marx, and L. Bode. 2013. Human milk oligosaccharides are differentially metabolized in neonatal rats. Br. J. Nutr. 110:640-650.
Malmuthuge, N., Y. Chen, G. Liang, L.A. Goonewardene, and L.L. Guan. 2015. Heat-treated colostrum feeding promotes beneficial bacteria colonization in the small intestine of neonatal calves. J. Dairy Sci. 98:8044-8053.
Marcobal, A., M. Barboza, E.D. Sonnenburg, N. Pudlo, E.C. Martens, P. Desai, C.B. Lebrilla, B.C. Weimer, D.A. Mills, J.B. German, and J.L. Sonnenburg. 2011. Bacteroides in the infant gut consume milk oligosaccharides via mucus-utilization pathways. Cell Host Microbe. 10:507-514.
Martin, M.J., A. Martin-Sosa, and P. Hueso. 2002. The sialylated fraction of milk oligosaccharides is partially responsible for binding to enterotoxigenic and uropathogenic Escherichia coli in human strains. J. Nutr. 132:3067-3072.
Martin-Sosa, S., M.J. Martin, L.A. Garcia-Pardo, and P. Hueso. 2003. Sialyloligosaccharides in human and bovine milk and in infant formulas: variations with the progression of lactation. J. Dairy Sci. 86:52-59.
Morrison, S.J., S. Dawson, and A.F. Carson. 2010. The effects of mannan oligosaccharide and Streptococcus faecium addition to milk replacer on calf health and performance. Livest. Sci. 131:292-296.
Nakamura, T., K. Kimura, Y. Watanabe, M. Ohtani, I Arai, and T. Urashima. (2003). Concentrations of sialyloligosaccharides in bovine colostrum and milk during the prepartum and early lactation. J. Dairy Sci. 86, 1315-1320.
National Animal Health Monitoring System. 2011. Dairy Heifer Raiser, 2011. US Dept. of Agric-Anim. and Plant Health Insp. Serv.-Vet. Serv., Ft. Collins, CO.
Ninonuevo, M.R., Y. Park, H. Yin, J. Zhang, R.E. Ward, B.H. Clowers, J.B. German, S.L. Freeman, K. Killeen, R. Grimm, and C.B. Lebrilla. 2006. A strategy for annotating the human milk glycome. J. Agric. Food Chem. 54(20):7471-7480.
Picard, C., J. Fioramonti, A. Francois, T. Robinson, F. Neant, and C. Matuchansky. 2005. Review article: Bifidobacteria as probiotic agents- physiological effects and clinical benefits. Aliment. Pharmacol. Ther. 22:495-512.
Robichaud, M., S.M. Godden, D.M. Haines, D.B. Haley, D.L. Pearl, J. Rushen, and S. LeBlanc. 2014. Addition of gut active carbohydrates to colostrum replacer does not improve passive transfer of immunoglobulin G in Holstein dairy calves. J. Dairy Sci. 97:5700-5708.
Sellars, K., M. Burril, J. Trei, K.E. Newman, and K.A. Jacques. 1997. Effect of mannan oligosaccharide supplementation on performance and health of Holstein calves. J. Dairy Sci. 80(Suppl. 1): 188.
Short, D.M., D.A. Moore, and W.M. Sischo. 2016. A randomized clinical trial evaluating the effects of oligosaccharides on transfer of passive immunity in neonatal dairy calves. J. Vet. Intern. Med. 30:1381-1389.
Tao, N., E.J. DePeters, S. Freeman, J.B. German, R. Grimm, and C.B. Lebrilla. 2008. Bovine milk glycome. J. Dairy Sci. 91:3768-3778.
Yasui, H., J. Kiyoshima, and H. Ushijima. 1995. Passive protection against Rotavirus-induced diarrhea of mouse pups born to and nursed by dams fed Bifidobacteria breve YIT4064. J. Infect. Dis. 172(2):403-409.
Yu, Z-T., C. Chen, and D.S. Newburg. 2013. Utilization of major fucosylated and sialylated human milk oligosaccharides by isolated human gut microbes. Glycobiology. 23(11):1281-1292.
Zivkovic, A.M., J.B. German, C.B. Lebrilla, and D.A. Mills. 2011. Human milk glycobiome and its impact on the infant gastrointestinal microbiota. PNAS. 108(1):4653-4658.

How much is failure of passive transfer costing your operation? An economic model estimates the value of lost opportunity that could be capitalized on if colostrum feeding practices are improved.

Influence of good colostrum feeding practices and long-term productivity

The economics of lower morbidity and mortality by improving colostrum-feeding practices are obvious, easily quantifiable, and almost universally accepted. However, the financial benefits of good colostrum feeding practices due to improvements on tangible production parameters are often overlooked. The effect of good colostrum feeding practices on average daily gain, reduced culling rate, and increased milk production are 3 tangible examples of the financial benefits that could be obtained by feeding more colostrum.

More colostrum = Increased daily gains

A significant correlation between serum levels of IgG in calves 24-48 hours after birth and average daily gain has been shown in several investigations (Robison J. D. et al. 1988, Massimini G. et al. 2006 and Dewell R.D. et al. 2006) and the growth rate of heifers from birth to sexual maturity has been shown to influence the age at first calving (Clark RD and Touchberry RW 1962, Virtala AM et al. 1996, Zanton GI, Heinrichs AJ 2005). Thus, the link between good levels of passive transfer on growth and age at first service has been well established. Recently a study from Poland more directly confirmed this and established that the higher the passive transfer level the better the performance in terms of age to first insemination (Furman-Fratczak K et al. 2011). In this study 175 heifer calves were divided into 4 groups based on serum IgG concentrations at 30-60 hours of life and followed from birth to first insemination. The study clearly revealed the benefits associated with serum IgG concentrations of ≥10 g/L. It was very notable that heifers in with the highest IgG level (>15 g/L) reached insemination weight (407 Kg) by 454 days of age a full month before those heifers that suffered FPT (IgG <5g/L) and 21 days sooner than heifers that suffered partial FPT (IgG 5 to 10g/L). Heifers with good levels of passive transfer (IgG 10-15g/L) also reached insemination weight before cohorts categorized in the FPT or partial FPT but 4 days later that the group categorized with the highest level of passive transfer. Thus the higher the IgG level the better performance. How much economic impact does this represent? Using a dynamic programming model of a dairy replacement herd, Tozer and Heinrichs showed that the average age at first calving affected the net costs of raising replacement heifers; reducing the age at first calving by 1 month lowered the cost of a replacement program of a 100 cow herd by $1400 or 4.3% (Tozer PR and Heinrichs AJ 2001).

More colostrum = Decreased culling rates

It has also been shown that feeding larger volumes of colostrum has an effect on culling-rate. In one study there was a 16% increase in survival of heifer calves to the end of the second lactation when fed four liters of colostrum compared to cohorts fed 2 liters (Faber S. N. et al. 2005). What is the economic impact of this improvement on herd-culling rates? Using the same model described previously Tozer and Heinrichs calculated that the costs of rearing replacements could be reduced by approximately $1000 to $1500 per 1% reduction in the milking herd-culling rate (Tozer PR and Heinrichs AJ 2001).

More colostrum = Increased milk production

The benefits of good colostrum feeding practices on long term productivity do not end there: early studies of the effect of neonatal serum IgG levels have also shown that higher levels of IgG also correlate with higher milk production later in life (DeNise SK et al. 1989). In that study it was estimated that for every unit of serum IgG above 12 mg/mL (measured at 24 to 48 hrs after colostrum feeding) there was an 8.5 Kg increase in milk production and a 0.24 Kg increase in fat production in the first lactation. This finding has been corroborated by a more recent study that showed that heifer calves fed 4 liters of colostrum at birth produced significantly more milk (an average of 1 kg more milk per day across two lactations) than cohorts fed 2 liters. What is the economic impact? In this particular study the calves fed the 4 L of colostrum produced 2,263 lbs more milk by the end of the second lactation (Faber S. N. et al. 2005).

How much colostrum should you feed to gain these benefits?

From the studies mentioned above and cited here, it is clear that the more colostrum that is fed the greater the benefit to the calf and overall operation. Therefore the answer is: as much as you can and as soon after birth as possible. Aim to achieve high levels of passive transfer in your calves. Taking short cuts when it comes to colostrum management practices can cost an operation big dollars in the end. We often concentrate our efforts on the older animals in the milking herd, however investment in our younger animals will result in payback for years to come.

 

Manuel Campos, DVM, MSc, PhD
South America Veterinary Technical Services, SCCL

The single, most important meal a calf will consume in its lifetime is the first feeding of colostrum. Knowing when and how to intervene are the first steps for ensuring a productive calf.

What are the impacts of good colostrum feeding practices on long-term productivity?

The financial benefits of good colostrum feeding practices due to improvements on tangible production parameters are often overlooked. The effect of good colostrum feeding practices on improved average daily gain, reduced treatment costs, and better feed conversion efficiency are 3 examples of the financial benefits that could be obtained by feeding more colostrum.

When should a producer be concerned that a calf needs to receive a colostrum supplement or replacer?

There are many circumstances when producers should feed a colostrum product; these include in very cold weather, twin births and calves born to first calf heifers with poor mothering instincts, however dystocia/difficult birth calves are at the greatest risk for failure of passive transfer of immunity since they are often slow to get up and suckle, and their body’s ability to absorb antibodies may be compromised due to the delay and altered metabolic parameters. Whenever there is the need to assist in the delivery of a calf, the calf should be given at least a supplement dose of colostrum, if not a full replacer dose. Producers should consider supplementing any calf that has not suckled within 1-2 hours of birth.

When should colostrum be fed?

With each minute that passes after birth, the calf’s ability to absorb antibodies is reduced, and by 24 hours the gut is almost completely closed. Colostrum must be fed as soon as possible after birth, ideally within an hour. In beef herds, calves should be assisted to suckle if they do not do so on their own. If bottle or tube feeding is necessary and when it is not possible to milk the cow immediately, a good quality colostrum supplement or replacer is an excellent alternative to ensure the calf receives a timely first meal. If colostrum has been delayed past 2 hours, feed larger amounts to compensate for reduced absorption.

How much colostrum do calves need?

When it comes to colostrum, more is better. Most veterinarians now recommend that calves receive at least 1 gallon or 4 liters of good quality colostrum, which should provide calves with at least 150-200g of IgG. Good quality colostrum replacers can be used when the dam does not provide sufficient volume, or where colostral quality/IgG/antibody concentration is low. A significant percentage of first calf heifers produce only small volumes of colostrum, sometimes less than 1 L, and their calves would benefit from a colostrum supplement or replacer.

How should I feed colostrum?

First, attempt to bottle feed the calf. If the calf does not consume the entire bottle or colostrum feeding is delayed past 6 hours, tube feeding the remainder is suggested in attempt to achieve successful passive transfer of immunity. Since absorption of colostrum Calves also benefit from a second and third feeding of colostrum.

Should cold weather calves be treated differently?

Calves have a thermal neutral zone of 15 to 25°C (59 to 77°F) and many calves are born into conditions much colder than this! Calves need a timely feeding of colostrum to warm them by providing energy to produce body heat. Note that bottle fed colostrum should be warm but not too hot to immerse your hand in. Colostrum contains unique colostral fat that initiates metabolism of brown fat stores which fuels the calf’s internal furnace for energy and heat to get up, suckle, stay warm and stay alive.

Can producers use colostrum from their own cows, and if so, how?

Herd colostrum can be used to supplement calves of other dams, but to be done right, it is a demanding process. Colostrum should be collected with sanitized equipment within 2 hours of birth of the calf; it should be tested with a refractometer or hydrometer to measure quality and only colostrum that meets parameters consistent with high IgG/antibody levels should be used; the colostrum should be cooled in small 1L or less containers, as quick as possible since bacteria numbers double every 20 minutes; stored either in a refrigerator for no more than 48 hours or frozen for no more than a year. Avoid freezing and thawing repeatedly as this may reduce the quality and life span of colostrum. It is unwise to use colostrum from neighboring dairy farms as this is a risk for introducing disease agents into the herd – even from farms using an on farm pasteurizer.

What should I look for in a colostrum product?

Examine ingredient labels carefully. Colostrum products can be made from various sources, however the greatest benefits to the calf result from feeding actual colostrum rather than formulas of proteins and fats from other sources. Colostrum based products contain all the immune, metabolic and growth factors naturally found in maternal colostrum. One very important ingredient is colostral fat. Colostral fat is essential for activating brown fat metabolism; an important energy source required by the calf immediately after birth. Products that contain blood or whey with added vegetable and animal fats not naturally found in colostrum do not provide the same benefits for the calf and some of these products contain no actual colostrum in them at all. Look for products that are regulated by the CFIA (Canada) or USDA (United States) and for those that are backed by numerous safety and efficacy studies published in scientific journals.

Can I feed colostrum after 24 hours?

Transition milk is produced by the cow for the first 6 milkings and represents a gradual decline in the bioactive ingredients found in first milk colostrum. Feeding transition milk can be an extra immune booster in addition to its rich composition of nutrients, energy, growth factors and hormones. Although the calf can no longer absorb antibodies directly into its bloodstream, the immune factors in transition milk are useful in providing local immunity and protection against infections that cause diarrhea. Suckling beef calves gain these benefits naturally, and they can also be provided to other calves by feeding a colostrum replacement product in an amount equal to feeding 10g IgG (or 1 cup of first milking maternal colostrum) or more per feeding; this strategy is especially beneficial during times of risk of scours.

 

Deserae Hook, BSc, Ag
Director of Marketing, SCCL

Effective colostrum management practices include the timely feeding of adequate volumes of clean colostrum with a broad spectrum of protective antibodies. This goal can be achieved by the careful selection, pooling and heat treatment of maternal colostrum harvested on farm or by the use of a standardized commercial colostrum product that is licensed as a veterinary biologic.

In a previous issue of the CC we discussed the many biosecurity challenges and disease hazards that can be linked to colostrum-feeding practices. In that document, we introduced two basic epidemiological concepts that help to understand disease transmission within a group of animals. The first key concept was the R0 (R Zero) representing the degree of transmissibility of the pathogen and the second was that of “herd immunity” or the level of disease protection in the population of animals. In this CC issue, we discuss how colostrum management practices can affect R0 and herd immunity and impact the overall biosecurity and health in the dairy.

Management practices that affect R0

The longer calves remain with their dam the greater the opportunity for direct and immediate transfer of infectious agents. Transmission may occur by droplets from coughing or urinating, by direct contact during social behaviour such as the dam licking the calf and/or through the calf suckling. The probability of transmission (R0) will be significantly reduced if the calf is immediately separated from the dam and hand-fed colostrum.

Colostrum can be an important source of transmission of infectious agents in dairy herds. The presence of pathogens in colostrum can occur by direct transmission from the mammary gland of an infected cow or by contamination of the colostrum with feces, urine or other secretions after the milking of the cow. Therefore, colostrum can potentially be contaminated with any pathogen present on the dairy and may represent an important source of maintaining infections in the herd.

Good hygiene and sanitation practices during collection of colostrum will reduce the risk of transmission due to contamination of colostrum with infectious agents after collection but has no effect on the risk of transmission of pathogens secreted directly into the mammary gland such as Mycobacterium avium Paratuberculosis (MAP). To minimize transmission of MAP and other pathogens secreted directly into the colostrum there are two approaches; collect colostrum only from cows that are proven to be free of the infections and/or use colostrum that has been heat-treated to destroy the pathogens. Testing of individual cows for the array of pathogens that can be transmitted via colostrum is impractical. Thus, only the second alternative is feasible. It has been shown that heat treatment (HT) of colostrum using a low temperature, longer-time method (60oC for 60 minutes) is achievable and commercially available batch “pasteurizers” are now in use on many dairies. This heat treatment has been shown to maintain most of the IgG bioactivity and colostrum fluid characteristics, while eliminating or significantly reducing important pathogens including E. coli, Salmonella spp, Mycoplasma bovis, and MAP (reviewed by Godden S., 2008). Is important to stress however that this HT protocol reduces bacterial counts but does not sterilize. If the colostrum is heavily contaminated these parameters will not eliminate all pathogens. In addition, the equipment must be carefully maintained and routinely calibrated to assure the quality of the heat treatment process. There is no test to assess the microbial load or the bioactivity of antibodies after on-farm heat treatment, thus the efficacy of this approach on a day-to-day basis on commercial operations remains uncertain. A recent long-term clinical study on MAP transmission found that by the end of the 3-year testing period there was no difference in the proportion of animals testing positive to MAP when comparing animals that consumed on farm heat treated colostrum and those consuming fresh colostrum (Godden S. M. et al. 2015).

The alternative that removes uncertainty and ensures no pathogens are transmitted in colostrum is through using commercially available colostrum products licensed as veterinary biologics by federal regulatory agencies. A study demonstrated a significant reduction in the risk of MAP transmission in calves fed a commercial colostrum supplement when compared with calves fed raw maternal colostrum at birth (Pithua et al., 2009). It is reasonable to postulate that feeding commercial colostrum products could similarly reduce the risk for transmission of many other diseases.

Management practices that affect herd immunity in the newborn.

In newborn calves the main resistance to infection and disease is passive immunity (maternal antibodies) provided by the IgG1 absorbed from colostrum. Thus, herd immunity among calves during the first weeks depends on the quality of passive transfer of immunity. If the colostrum feed to the calves is of poor quality (low antibody mass and/or incomplete spectrum of protective antibodies) the proportion of animals susceptible to infections will be high, thereby increasing the numbers of infections arising in the group (increasing the R0).

Colostrum management for effective biosecurity requires that the “herd” of newborns have sufficient levels of protective immunity to the specific pathogens in the environment. Most common causes of calf morbidity and mortality during the first 3 weeks of life are pneumonias and diarrheas caused by pathogens capable of infecting the respiratory and intestinal mucosal surfaces. For antibodies of a given specificity to be present in colostrum the dams must receive an immune “boost” at the appropriate time during the dry cow period to generate high titers of antibody to each agent of concern. There are two ways to assure that the full spectrum of antibodies is present in the colostrum fed to an individual calf, either through a very comprehensive dry cow vaccination program or the use of commercial colostrum products produced from large pools of individual colostrums. The pooling process for commercial products can be done to assure both a standardized overall mass of IgG and protective antibody titers to all the important pathogens ubiquitous on dairy farms.

If we accept the definition of biosecurity as management practices implemented to prevent introduction and/or spread of infectious agents in a herd, we can be confident that the implementation of colostrum feeding practices as a critical control point will improve biosecurity on the dairy. Conversely, failure to do so omits one of the most important opportunities in a biosecurity program.

In summary, effective colostrum management can play a role in reducing the levels of infectious disease in a dairy herd both through reducing direct disease transmission and by increasing the herd immunity. Effective colostrum management practices include the timely feeding of adequate volumes of clean colostrum with a broad spectrum of protective antibodies. While effective colostrum management can be achieved by the careful selection, pooling and heat treatment of maternal colostrum harvested on farm, the use a standardized commercial colostrum product that is licensed as a veterinary biologic by federal agencies is a convenient and reliable means to facilitate this goal.

Manuel Campos, DVM, MSc, PhD
South America Veterinary Technical Services, SCCL
Deborah Haines, DVM, M Phil, PhD
Director of Research & Development, SCCL and Professor Emerita, Department of Veterinary Microbiology, Western College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Saskatchewan
 

To ensure proper immunity, energy and overall health, it is important to feed the correct amount of good quality colostrum to calves. However, it can be challenging to understand the proper treatment for each size of calf, especially smaller calves, in order to maximize these health benefits.

 

The Colostrum Counsel: Feeding Colostrum to Smaller Calves

It is well known that feeding a sufficient volume of good-quality colostrum is one of the single most important factors in ensuring the health and well-being of a newborn calf. Current recommendations are to feed colostrum at 10% of birth body weight in the first hours of life to ensure the passive transfer of IgG. However, it is time-consuming for producers to weigh each calf after birth and calculate the amount of colostrum to be fed. This results in the majority of producers standardizing the amount of colostrum fed to all newborns, such as feeding 4L of colostrum immediately after birth, then 2L 12 hours later. But, should you be feeding twin 25kg Holstein calves the same 4L meal size immediately after birth that you would feed an average size, 40kg Holstein calf? This question may also be asked for smaller breeds, such as Jerseys, or small Hereford or Angus calves. So, how much colostrum is too much and what are the consequences?

Absorption of IgG in Small Calves

The rate of IgG absorption can actually be affected depending on the volume of colostrum fed to a small calf. For instance, a study using newborn Jersey calves demonstrated that feeding a 2L meal of high-quality (84g of IgG per L) colostrum immediately after birth followed by a second 2L meal of the same colostrum at 12h after birth resulted in higher blood IgG concentrations compared to calves fed one large 4L meal of high-quality colostrum immediately after birth (Jaster, 2005). Specifically, it was shown that the amount of IgG absorbed from colostrum was 18% higher when Jersey calves were fed two smaller meals of colostrum. It is suggested that this finding may have occurred because there is a maximum amount of IgG that can be absorbed by the calf gut. Thus, providing an excess amount of colostrum (and IgG) may actually cause an inhibition of IgG absorption.

Although not mentioned, abomasal emptying rate may have played a role in the efficacy of absorption of IgG in Jaster (2005), as the apparent efficiency of absorption (AEA (%), how much IgG from colostrum is absorbed by the small intestine) was also higher in the Jersey calves fed 2L twice within 12hrs. By definition, abomasal emptying is known as the amount of time that the meal remains in the abomasum before passing into the intestinal tract (Burgstaller et al., 2017) and it has been shown that the volume of a liquid meal is an important factor that can affect the rate of abomasal emptying in young ruminants (Bell & Razig, 1973). Specifically, it has been demonstrated that the greater the volume of the meal offered to a calf in a single feeding, the longer the meal will remain in the abomasum (Burgstaller et al., 2017). Delaying the abomasal emptying rate has been shown to decrease the AEA of IgG (Mokhber-Dezfooli et al., 2012). Therefore, it is likely that feeding a Jersey calf a 4L meal all at once will decrease abomasal emptying and therefore decrease the efficiency of absorption of IgG compared to feeding a smaller 2L meal.

Method of Feeding

The findings of Jaster (2005) using Jersey calves are opposite to those found in an experiment that used Holstein calves (Morin et al., 1997). This demonstrates that the body weight of a calf plays a crucial role in how much IgG can be absorbed from colostrum. However, when feeding smaller meals the method of colostrum feeding can actually have an effect on the amount of IgG absorbed. A study using Holstein bull calves demonstrated that feeding 1.5L of a colostrum replacer (100g of IgG total) by nipple bottle resulted in higher blood IgG concentrations compared to calves fed 1.5L by esophageal tube feeder (Godden et al., 2009). Moreover, all calves fed 1.5L of colostrum by nipple bottle achieved adequate passive transfer (serum IgG ≥10mg/ml), while 58.3% of calves fed 1.5L by esophageal tube had failure of passive transfer.

Although using an esophageal tube feeder is time efficient and convenient for the producer, it is well known that the esophageal groove is not triggered when suckling from a nipple does not occur, resulting in colostrum deposition directly into the reticulorumen (Godden et al., 2009). Due to this phenomena, the authors hypothesized that calves fed 1.5L by esophageal tube feeder had lower concentrations of IgG because the majority of the meal was deposited in the reticulorumen, which has the capacity to hold ~1L of liquid, resulting in a delay of colostrum emptying from the abomasum. Therefore, in order to prevent a delay in the delivery of IgG to the small intestine for absorption, and the failure of passive transfer, it is recommended that a 2L meal of colostrum be fed by nipple bottle and that any refusals be fed by esophageal tube feeder if necessary.

Take Home Messages

In addition to taking into consideration the volume of colostrum to feed and the method used, it is always important to feed colostrum as soon as possible after birth, as well as to use good quality colostrum containing more than 50g of IgG per liter in order to achieve successful passive transfer. Unfortunately, analysis of colostrum to determine IgG concentrations can be time consuming and is not easily done, resulting in only ~13% of producers routinely evaluating the quality of colostrum, with half of those estimating the quality solely based off of visual inspection (NAHMS, 2007). Since the quantity of IgG fed to the calf needs to be sufficient (≥100g of IgG total) in order to ensure passive transfer, colostrum replacer may be considered as a viable option. For smaller calves, such as Jerseys or any calves weighing less than 30kg, it is recommended to feed a colostrum replacer at a rate which delivers 2L containing as much IgG as possible – especially if tube feeding these meals – and to repeat the same feeding 8-12hrs later. This will ensure that the small newborn will achieve maximum absorption of the important nutritional and immune factors in colostrum, resulting in a healthy calf.

 

Amanda Fischer, MSc.

SCCL and Research Assistant at the University of Alberta
[email protected]

 

 

References
Bell, F.R. and S.A.D. Razig. 1973. Gastric emptying and secretion on the milk-fed calf. J. Physiol. 228:499-512.
Burgstaller, J., T. Wittek, and G.W. Smith. 2017. Invited review: absomasal emptying in calves and its potential influence on gastrointestinal disease. J. Dairy Sci. 100:17-35.
Godden, S.M., D.M. Haines, K. Konkol, and J. Peterson. 2009. Improving passive transfer of immunoglobulins in calves. II: Interaction between feeding method and volume of colostrum fed. J. Dairy Sci. 92:1758-1764.
Jaster, E.H. 2005. Evaluation of quality, quantity and timing of colostrum feeding on immunoglobulin G1 absorption in Jersey calves. J. Dairy Sci. 88:296-302.
Mokhber-Dezfooli, M.R., M. Nouri, M. Rasekh, and P.D. Constable. 2012. Effect of absomasal emptying rate on the apparent efficiency of colostral immunoglobulin G absorption in neonatal Holstein-Friesian calves. J. Dairy Sci. 95:6740-6749.
Morin, D.E., G.C. McCoy, and W. L. Hurley. 1997. Effects of quality, quantity and timing of colostrum feeding and addition of a dried colostrum supplement on immunoglobulin G1 absorption in dairy calves. J. Dairy Sci. 80:747-753.
National Animal Health Monitoring System. 2007. Dairy 2007. Part 1: Reference of dairy health and management in the United States. US Dept. of Agric-Anim. And Plant Health Insp. Serv.-Vet. Serv., Ft. Collins, CO.

In pre-weaned dairy calves, inclusion of a colostrum replacer powder to the milk replacer for 14 days showed positive results in reducing incidence of diarrhea, respiratory disease, depression and umbilical disease. Use of antibiotics was significantly less for those receiving the colostrum replacer supplement.

Alternatives to antibiotics are a global concern

Results from previous and current research have indicated that supplementing calves with maternal colostrum or a colostrum replacement product after 24 hours of life improves overall dairy calf health and reduces the use of antibiotics during the pre-weaning period (Berge et al., 2009; Chamorro et al., 2016). Recently, regulatory agencies from the United States and Europe have increased restrictive measures in the use of antibiotics in major food producing animals; however, the development of new antimicrobials for livestock species is negligible and morbidity and mortality losses associated with infectious disease are still common among livestock operations worldwide. Therefore there is an evident need on the development of alternatives to reduce antibiotic use in major food producing animal species such as cattle.

In a recent study published at the Journal of Dairy Sci.1 we were able to demonstrate the beneficial effects of supplementing a commercial colostrum replacement product (CCT-HiCal, SCCL, Saskatoon, Canada) in the milk replacer ration of pre-weaned dairy calves on occurrence of disease and reduction of antibiotic use.

Study design – for 14 days, one group received milk replacer only, the other group received colostrum in the milk replacer twice daily

Two hundred and two 1-d old Holstein dairy calves were assigned to 1 of 2 groups after arrival to a dairy calf rearing facility. Calves assigned to the control group (n=100) received milk replacer (28% crude protein and 20% crude fat) without colostrum inclusion twice daily. Calves assigned to the treatment group (n=102) received 150 g of supplemental colostrum replacer powder (CCT-HiCal) containing ≥20 g of IgG added to their milk replacer twice daily for the first 14 d of life.

Before group assignment, serum samples were collected from all calves to confirm transfer of passive immunity. Calves were evaluated daily until weaning (56 days of life) for signs of clinical disease as well as any treatment with antibiotics. Presentation of clinical disease and antibiotic treatment was recorded daily by personnel blinded to treatment allocation. All calves had adequate transfer of passive immunity (serum IgG > 10 g/L) and most calves had excellent transfer of passive immunity (serum IgG > 15 g/L at 24 h).

Results – colostrum supplemented calves were better protected against diarrhea, respiratory disease and umbilical disease

For calves that received the colostrum replacer powder supplement the probability of having diarrhea, respiratory disease, depression, and umbilical disease was 85%, 54%, 79%, and 82% lower, respectively, than that of calves that did not receive the colostrum replacer powder supplement. This indicates a protective effect of the colostrum replacer powder supplement in the occurrence not only of diarrhea but also of respiratory and umbilical disease.

Additionally, these results also suggest that achieving high levels of IgG from maternal colostrum does not always result in complete protection against infectious pathogens and that factors such as pathogen pressure and specific immunity might play an important role in clinical protection of disease.

Antibiotic use for colostrum supplemented calves was lower than control calves

With respect to antibiotic use, the probability of receiving at least one treatment with antibiotics for calves that received the colostrum replacer supplement was 93% lower than that of calves that did not receive colostrum replacer. This indicates a major effect of the colostrum replacer supplement in the reduction of antibiotic use in supplemented dairy calves.

Why is colostrum beneficial after day 1?

We believe local and possible systemic effects of some of the components of the colostrum replacer powder such as lactoferrin, TNF-α, epidermal growth factor, IL-6, and IL-1β could have provided additional protection through better immune responses against enteric and respiratory pathogens in supplemented calves. The reduction in the overall occurrence of disease in supplemented pre-weaned dairy calves likely resulted in a reduced need of antibiotic treatment. Although colostrum replacement products have been advocated as an alternative to prevent failure in the transfer of passive immunity in calves when availability of maternal colostrum is low or when quality of maternal colostrum is compromised due to low IgG levels or the presence of colostrum-borne pathogens their use post-gut closure after day 1 of life has not been fully investigated.

Based on results from this study, this dried-colostrum colostrum replacement product (CCT-HiCal) could be used as a supplement of the milk replacer diet to decrease morbidity and the associated need for antibiotic therapy in pre-weaned dairy calves irrespective of their status in the transfer of passive immunity.

Chamorro, et al. J. Dairy Sci. 100 2017 2016-11652, Evaluation of the effects of colostrum replacer supplementation of the milk replacer ration on the occurrence of disease, antibiotic therapy, and performance of pre-weaned dairy calves.

 

Manuel F. Chamorro, DVM, MS, PhD, DACVIM
Assistant Professor of Livestock and
Field Service, College of Veterinary
Medicine, Kansas State University, and
Technical Veterinary Consultant, SCCL

Welfare of food animals is a rapidly growing factor in consumer selection of their meat and dairy products. Deficient colostrum feeding practices can lead to significant suffering of the young calf. Adequate colostrum feeding will not only ensure the welfare of your calves, but also improve the marketability of your animals.

A state of well-being is achieved when the nutritional, environmental, health and behavioral needs are met. The opposite is a state of suffering and the better recognized causes of suffering in the newborn calf are: breathlessness, hypothermia, hunger, sickness and pain (Mellor and Stafford, 2004). It is generally presumed that circumstances that lead to weakness or death involve severe suffering. The European Food Safety Authority has developed a risk analysis approach for evaluation of animal welfare and has carried out a risk analysis of calf welfare in intensive farming systems (EFSA, 2006). This analysis involves characterization of the major hazards resulting in suffering and an assessment of the likelihood of calves being exposed to each hazard. According to EFSA’s evaluation the magnitude of risk to calf well-being due to failues in colostrum management is very high and very serious for the affected individuals (EFSA 2006, 2012).

Good colostrum feeding practices promotes calf wellbeing

The contribution of colostrum ingestion to the health and well-being of the newborn calf is well established. The best recognized benefits of timely colostrum ingestion include: i) an immediate source of energy essential for thermogenesis and survival of the newborn ii) immunological protection of the neonatal calf against infectious agents during the first weeks of life.

The first adaptation of a newborn mammal to the external environment is the requirement that the animal initiate independent metabolic and respiratory processes to obtain oxygen and energy. Calves are born with extremely limited energy reserves of glycogen and fat. It is estimated that the glycogen reserves are depleted during the first 3 hours of life and that body fat may be able to fulfil the energy needs for about 12 hours (Girard et al. 1992). Approximately 20% of the solids in good quality colostrum are a specialized fat that is readily absorbed and metabolically active to immediately produce heat energy in the newborn. Calves ability to rapidly enter into a state of anabolic metabolism following birth is directly related to the ingestion of colostrum providing the critical substrates (Girard 1986).

The newborn calf quickly develops the capacity to generate protective immune responses to infectious agents, however in the immediate neonatal period disease protection is totally dependent on the passive transfer of antibodies found in colostrum (Robison et al. 1988). Colostrum transfers a broad array of antibodies derived from the serum of the cow that protect the newborn until it mounts effective secondary immune responses on its own. The colostrum-derived antibodies allow for exposure of the newborn to the pathogens in the environment without disease and pathology. The quantity and quality of passive protection attained by the calf depends upon the mass of immunoglobulin/antibodies consumed by the calf during the first few hours of life which is directly related to the concentration of antibodies in the colostrum, the volume of colostrum consumed, and the age of the calf when it was consumed.

Poor colostrum feeding practices compromise calf welfare

Calf mortality during the first 24 hours of life can reach 8% and is frequently associated with failures in metabolic/respiratory adaptation (Lombard et al. 2007). Strategies to promote respiration, reduce energy loss (prevent heat loss or excessive heat), and assure early consumption of high levels of fat in colostrum can significantly reduce mortality rates in newborn calves. Failure to provide sufficient amounts of colostrum soon after birth could potentially trigger 3 of the identified noxious welfare experiences in the newborn; hunger, hypothermia, and respiratory distress. The consumption of high quality colostrum to promote these early metabolic adjustments should be considered a critical component of care to promote calf well-being.

In calves that survive this early metabolic adaptation (the first 24 hours of life), the period of greatest risk for disease morbidity and mortality is the next 3 weeks of life. Disease and deaths during these weeks are primarily due to inadequate protection against infectious agents. It is widely accepted that in newborn domestic animals immune protection from infectious disease in the early weeks of life is highly dependent upon the passive transfer of maternal immunoglobulins present in colostrum. (Robison et al. 1988, Virtala et al. 1999). Failure of passive transfer of antibodies could potentially trigger 2 additional noxious welfare experiences in the newborn; sickness and pain.

In conclusion good colostrum feeding practices help ensure calves achieve a state of wellbeing whereas deficient colostrum feeding could lead to significant suffering of the newborn and/or young calf.

Manuel Campos, DVM, MSc, PhD
South America Veterinary Technical Services, SCCL
Deborah Haines, DVM, M Phil, PhD
Director of Research & Development, SCCL and Professor Emerita, Department of Veterinary Microbiology, Western College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Saskatchewan