Many farms wish to use the colostrum they already have available, but often it falls short of perfect. A new way of feeding colostrum allows producers to boost the quality their maternal colostrum before feeding it to the calf.

It is now widely known colostrum is essential for calf survival, performance and has impacts on lifelong productivity.

Colostrum management typically involves managing colostrum and implementation protocols with emphasis on four main points:

1. Timing of administration (within the 1st two hours and a second feeding within 12 hours)

2. Colostrum Quality (concentration of IgG antibodies greater than 50 g/L)

3. Colostrum cleanliness (low pathogen load or bacteria counts)

4. Colostrum quantity (typically 10% of the body weight in kg).

These management facets are all equally important. For example, a producer could do a good job managing three out of the four and yet still have poor calf health. If lets say the timing, colostrum cleanliness and colostrum quantity are all being managed well, but the colostrum lacks proper antibody levels, it results in more calves failing transfer of passive immunity (FTPI). When calves either do not get enough colostral antibodies or none, the risk for scours, respiratory disease and overall death loss increases by upwards of fourfold in the first 60 days of life. This happens because in a sense the dam of the calf is passing her immunity onto the calf via the colostrum, and this is also why we call the phenomenon passive transfer. For this article, lets focus on the colostrum quality or concentration of antibodies/ IgG. And while we will discuss the proper antibody levels, it is important to realize colostrum is much more than just antibodies. It is packed full of on the order of hundreds of bioactive factors, natural pre-biotics, nutrients and vitamins/trace minerals.

How do you determine the antibody or IgG concentration in colostrum?

While the gold standard way to measure colostral antibody/ IgG concentration is by a highly technical laboratory method called radial immunodiffusion, an indirect way to measure it on farm is with an optical or digital brix refractometer. Again, these devices are “indirect” measurements of true colostral IgG content and are indeed about 80% accurate. A brix level of 22% equates to approximately 50 g of IgG per L. Therein, if a person were to feed a 90lb/40kg calf 4L of 22% brix colostrum, it would provide a mass of 200 grams of IgG to the calf. This has served as a rule of thumb over the years for a Holstein calf which is to feed 10% of the body weight (.1 X 40 = 4L) at 22% brix (50 g IgG/L x 4 = 200 grams IgG). There are new recommendations; however, indicating calf morbidity and rate of failed transfer of passive immunity (FTPI) decrease by providing more colostral antibody/IgG. In fact, these new recommendations aim now to provide 300 grams of IgG in order to achieve excellent passive transfer. So what does this mean in terms of brix? Well, it means we need to raise standards on farm to select colostrum with brix levels above 24% brix.

Should we brix every batch of colostrum fed or every milking of colostrum from individual cows?

The answer is yes, we should. The reason being is colostrum is highly variable in terms of antibody concentration. In fact, there are genetic differences between cows, dry cow nutrition, seasonality, parity and timing of collection are just some of the factors, to name a few, which contribute to the variability. Research over the years has shown that upwards of 30% of colostrum has antibody below 50 g/L (and remember this is based on old standards where 22% brix = 50 g/l IgG) and a recent survey study conducted by the National Health Monitoring Study in 2014 showed approximately 23% of colostrum to have below 22% brix. This is something to consider when new standards indicate to feed colostrum with greater than 24% brix levels. Does this mean as well that colostrum is worthless below 22 % brix? How can we manage to use colostrum below 24 % brix? First and foremost, one rule of thumb which still stands true today is to discard any colostrum with brix levels below 15-16%. Brix levels at these levels typically indicates colostrum has less than 30 g of IgG per Liter and it does not provide enough immunity for calves.

So what if the colostrum brix test between 15-24% brix?

One solution is to use this colostrum for a second feeding between 6-12 hours birth; however, a new application called “enrichment” can be performed with efficacy.

There is a solution!…. Enrichment!:

Enrichment involves adding a precise amount of colostrum replacer powder directly to maternal colostrum. Therein if the brix level falls between 15-24%, enriching with colostrum replacer of a consistent IgG level can indeed turn poorer quality colostrum into excellent quality maternal colostrum.

A new research study conducted at the University of Guelph proved this to be an efficacious way to improve maternal colostrum. In the study, Researchers fed maternal colostrum at various brix levels with the lowest level being 15.8% brix (equated to 30 g of IgG per liter).

On calves fed maternal colostrum at 15.8% brix, 18.8% failed transfer of passive immunity.

They also fed colostrum which was enriched from 15.8% brix up to 26% brix and were able to achieve good levels of passive transfer while have 0% of calves failing transfer of passive immunity (compared to the 18.8% mentioned had they not enriched).

The Researchers also enriched from 20.3% brix to 31.3 % brix and they achieved on the average excellent passive transfer in the calves. In fact, the calves fed the 20.3% brix colostrum had only 50% of the calves achieving excellent passive transfer and 6.25% achieving fair passive transfer.

After enriching the 20.3% colostrum to 31.3% brix they were able to achieve higher passive transfer levels with 62.5% of calves achieving excellent passive transfer and 0% achieving fair passive transfer (vs only 50%).

Again, based on research indicating lower morbidity for calves achieving excellent passive transfer, the enrichment strategies proved to improve transfer of passive immunity and significantly decrease the percentage of calves failing transfer of passive immunity.

Enrichment is an excellent way to still use maternal colostrum that you have on hand from the dam and boost it’s quality with a colostrum product.

 

Mike Nagorske, DVM.

Director of Research, SCCL
[email protected]

 

Newborn calves are extremely susceptible to environmental conditions. Both heat and cold stress play a major factor in a calf ’s ability to survive the first days of life, and their comfort range is much more narrow than we would think. Mother nature can deliver the weather, but we can deliver colostrum that will give calves a fighting chance.

We know the significant impacts of failure of passive transfer from low IgG consumption after birth, but did you know colostral fat can also impact the overall health and performance of newborn calves? Neonatal animals in terms of both calves and small ruminants are sensitive to cold temperatures. Many may think of cold stress happening at temperatures below freezing; however, it does not take much in terms of cool ambient air to induce cold stress to a neonate. The thermoneutral zone is one way to describe this phenomenon. It is a range of temperatures where an animal will not require additional energy, metabolism or physiological defense mechanisms to maintain its body temperature. The ambient temperature below what is considered the lower critical temperature (LCT) would thereby induce an animal to increase metabolic heat production to defend its body temperature. When the temperature goes above the upper critical temperature (UCT), the animal must also expend energy to maintain body temperature and prevent over-heating. And the physiologic mechanisms to do so require energy.

Thermalneutral Zone

Despite variances in environmental conditions, the thermoneutral zone of most calves is between 13.4°C/56°F and 25°C/77°F.

This means, if the temperature goes below 13.4°C/56°F, it induces cold stress and requires the calf to defend its body temp in ways we will discuss. The same goes for the upper range inducing heat stress above 25°C/77°F.

Let’s say for example, it is a cold winter night and a cow calves. The temperature is 10 degrees C/50 degrees F.

What then is required for this animal to defend its body temperature given it is literally coming into this world below its thermal-neutral zone?

In other words, how is this neonate going to produce enough heat to maintain its bodily functions? The answer lies in two important physiologic responses.
One is through shivering thermogenesis, and the other is through non-shivering thermogenesis involving brown adipose tissue metabolism (also called Brown fat). Studies proving this phenomenon stem all the way back to the 80’s where Vermorel et al (1983) placed newborn calves in a 37 degree C water bath and found shivering began at 32 degrees C. Shivering worsened as they cooled the water; in fact, heat production increased by as much as 100%. So, with the calf just born, it is likely shivering is going to take place visually.
Research in neonatal lambs has shown that approximately 60% of the thermogenic response is due to shivering and the other 40% due to brown fat metabolism (Carstens 1994). This fresh calf just born will therein shiver most certainly and then it will also tap into the most potent heat producing organ in its body: brown fat! Interestingly, the brown fat this calf likely has will only constitute 1-2% of its body weight at birth and yet still contribute 40% of its thermogenic capability. (Fun fact: Believe it or not, brown fat, even though 1-2% of the body weight is an actual organ).

What can we do to trigger heat production?

So with this calf now having two mechanisms to defend its body temperature through shivering or brown fat metabolism, it should be okay right? We can just in sense walk away and go to bed? Well, one might want to make sure the calf at least stands up. A study conducted by Vermorel et al, found heat production in newborn calves to increase by 100% when calves stood for 10 minutes and by another 40% when they stood for 30 or more minutes. Activity as simple as standing increases muscle movement and indeed triggers heat production.

Is there anything we can give the calf to warm them up?

There is one more thing we need to consider which may be most important. Colostrum! While there are antibodies and hundreds of bioactive factors in colostrum to provide immunity and tissue growth, colostral fat is an important player in cold stress. Colostral fat has a unique fatty acid profile and serves as a substrate for the brown fat cells. In a sense, it provides the proverbial jet fuel for the potent heat producing brown fat. The brown fat cells take in the fatty acids from colostrum and then it sparks combustion to where the cell literally produces heat. Interestingly, there are other bioactive factors in colostrum which recruit more brown fat cells to mature into functional heat producing machines. These include growth factors in the colostrum which have been documented in research to proliferate more brown fat cells, namely, fibroblast growth factor (FGF), insulin-like growth factor (IGF), Epidermal growth factor (EGF) and platelet derived growth factor (PDGF).

Therefore, whether a calf is beef or dairy and the temperature is below the lower critical temperature (ie.. 13.4 degrees C/56 degrees F), it is vitally important this calf receives colostrum. This will do three things:

1. It will supply an abundance of energy to get the calf to stand up (and remember heat production increases with activity)

2. It will provide the unique colostral fat to jump start the brown fat cells to produce heat

3. The plethora of growth factors in the colostrum will recruit more brown fat cells (in a sense make more heat machines).

Can a colostrum replacer can be used as a tool in a beef or dairy calf to play a role in thermogenesis?

Are colostrum replacers the same as the maternal colostrum produced by the beef or dairy cow? This is where things can get dicey. Unfortunately, not all colostrum replacers are created equal. Many colostrum replacers are made from blood serum, whey, whey protein concentrate, and do not have only colostral fat as the main energy source. Fat sources can include but are not limited to animal fat, vegetable oil, coconut oil, dairy and palm fat to name a few. These fats do not have the same or unique fatty acid profile as colostral fat. Fat is therefore also not created equal, and this has shown to have ramifications in terms of brown fat stimulation. Researchers have shown for example polyunsaturated fats (i.e… omega 3 and 6 fatty acids… fish oil) vs saturated fats (tallow, animal fat, butter, etc.) have shown to have both recruiting and stimulation effects on brown fat. (in terms of contributing key cell components (UCP1 protein content) which spark heat production in brown fat cells). In fact, research by Wilms et al (2022) shows colostral fat to be higher in polyunsaturated fatty acids compared to whole milk. The polyunsaturated fat called omega-3 fatty acid was 45% higher in colostrum compared to whole milk (fun fact: Eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), a type of omega three fatty acid, was 73% higher in colostrum vs whole milk and it produces signaling molecules to reduce inflammation in the body). It is likely there is a physiological reason for this, and it raises doubt amongst many of the fat sources used in synthetically derived colostrum replacers on the market.

What should we look for in a colostrum replacer?

If a colostrum replacer is used, be sure to check it is made from whole bovine colostrum and colostral fat… not a different fat source!

To further prove the point of the importance of colostral fat in colostrum replacers, research was performed looking at colostrum replacer with low fat levels. It is important if a colostrum replacer is utilized it not only contains colostral fat (derived from pure bovine colostrum) but also enough fat.

The study compared colostrum replacer with 22% fat vs defatted colostrum at 5.7 % fat. Both replacers had the same amount of IgG/antibody with the only difference being the fat content. The study was designed such to not stimulate shivering and attempt to stimulate only brown fat metabolism (Min temp 13.4 Degrees C and average temp of 21.4 degrees C).

The results were astounding! Calves fed the defatted colostrum replacer had a 50% increase in respiratory disease in the first 90 days of life and a 6% increase in mortality. They also had lower rectal temperatures and spent less time standing and more time in a lying position. Interestingly, the calves fed defatted colostrum had lower weight gain in the first 4 months of life. The calves fed the full fat colostrum gained 6.6 kg/14.6 lbs more at 90 days of age and 10 kg/22 lbs more at 127 days of age. This equates to a difference in average daily gain of 0.07 kg/d (.154 lbs/d) in the first 90 days and 0.1 kg/d (.22 lbs/d) at 127 days of age. The impact on weight gain was immense and economically it means one can spend money on colostrum replacer with full fat and whole colostral fat.

In a conservative approach, lets say it costs $1.50 per head per day to feed out to 127 days old and the target weight is 129 kg/284 lbs.

If a calf is born at 40 kg/88lbs and gains .71 kg/d (1.56 lbs/d) it would take (129kg/284lbs-40 kg/88lbs = 89 kg/196 lbs of total weight gain ) (89 kg/196 lbs total weight gain/.71 kg/d (1.56lbs/d) = 125 days to hit 129 kg/284 lbs. Now lets say in that 127 day period the calf gains .81kg/d (1.79 lbs/d).

The math would be as follows: (129kg/284lbs-40 kg/88lbs = 89 kg/196 lbs of total weight gain (89 kg/196 lbs total weight gain/.81 kg/d (1.79lbs/d) = 109 days to hit 129 kg/284 lbs. The difference then is 125d-109d = 16 days. In other words if a calf gains 0.07kg/d (.154 lbs/d) more, it will hit the target of 129 kg/284 lbs, 16 days sooner. If it costs $1.50 per day to feed the calf it would equate to $24.00 more in savings in terms of decreased days on feed. Can you afford to spend $24.00 more on a full fat colostrum replacer with pure colostral fat?

By now it should be evident how important brown fat is to the newborn and the role colostrum plays in thermoregulation. It does not mean a colostrum replacer can’t be used but it is important to be sure it is made from whole bovine colostrum and is not defatted or made with other fat sources.

 

 

Mike Nagorske, DVM.

Director of Research, SCCL
[email protected]

Calves are a unique species in how they rely on colostrum ingestion to provide immune protection for the first months of life. Are refractometers an accurate way to quickly and easily measure immune transfer in individual calves?

Adequate colostrum ingestion is the single most important determinant of health, survival, performance and therein profitability in calf’s life. Passive Transfer is commonly used to describe the phenomenon by which a calf acquires its immunity from the dam via colostrum.

My calves received colostrum. How can I now verify that my calves have enough immunity?

Many producers often question if there are visual ways to determine if a calf fails passive transfer; however, it usually requires pulling a blood sample, centrifuging the sample to collect serum and either directly or indirectly measuring the level of IgG.

The indirect way to measure IgG in the serum is by utilizing an optical or digital refractometer which measures serum total protein (STP). This method is considered a calf side test because the blood can be collected on a particular day, centrifuged, and the serum can be placed on the refractometer with the result being known right then.

Because serum total protein is readily analyzed and available on the farm, many producers have relied on this test to determine the level of passive transfer in calves. While this has been practiced for many years and it is regarded as a useful tool, the results have frequently been misinterpreted due to limitations of the test.

It is important to understand how a refractometer works and the composition of the serum tested before heavily placing emphasis on data from STP. Believe it or not, refractometers were originally designed for use in the wine, beer and maple syrup industries to measure the amount of sucrose or sugar in water. The refractometer itself, whether it is optical or digital, relies on a light source and prism.
Brix refractometers have been validated for use on farm to indirectly measure IgG content in both colostrum and serum.

In calves specifically fed maternal colostrum, use of serum total protein has proven to be highly correlated to levels of IgG in the calf and also used to identify failure of passive transfer (FTP).
However, the serum total protein test is not meant to determine passive transfer status of individual calves.

The serum total protein testing is not meant to answer questions regarding passive transfer status on individual calves. Rather, the correct way to utilize this test is on a population level and to answer one question: Is my colostrum management program likely working or not working? Godden et al., 2008 best describes this and indicates that results need to be interpreted on a group or herd basis and will accurately reflect the relative proportion of calves with FPT.

How do I accurately perform the test and what do the results mean?

To perform it properly, the serum samples should be collected from at least 12 clinically normal calves
(without scours or respiratory disease) between 24 hours and 7 days of age. Godden et al;, 2008 also mentions two cutoff methods for determining the proportion of calves with FTP where one goal is for 80% or more of calves tested to meet or exceed 5.5 g/dL or another in that 90% or more of calves be above a cut-off of 5.0 g/dL.

It is recommended then when a disproportionate number of calves have FPT, that an investigation be performed to determine problems with the colostrum management program.

Furthermore, this could involve utilizing the gold standard method for determining true IgG concentration in the serum where radial immunodiffusion (RID) testing be performed.

“…the correct way to utilize this test is on a population level and to answer one question: Is my colostrum management program likely working or not working?”

Can I use a refractometer to test my calves after feeding colostrum replacer products?

If a colostrum replacer is fed, serum total protein testing should not be utilized to determine passive transfer status even on a population level. A recent study conducted by Lopez et al,. (2021) looked at the accuracy of the use of serum total proteins for maternal colostrum fed calves and calves fed a colostrum-based colostrum replacer. Serum IgG was inaccurate or poorly correlated with serum IgG when considering calves fed a colostrum-based colostrum replacer.

Therefore, because results are widely variable and inaccurate, it is not recommended to utilize serum total proteins when monitoring or determining passive level status in calves fed colostrum replacer. It is recommended instead to perform radial immunodiffusion testing.

Which other factors can affect serum total protein levels and alter the results from testing with a refractometer?

It is also important to consider the composition of serum and some of the limitations of what is being tested in the serum. When it comes to trying to understand passive transfer status based on serum total protein, we must remember the following assumptions:

1. Colostrum solids are about 50% proteins (up to half of which is IgG1).
2. All colostrum proteins are nonselectively absorbed into the bloodstream (not only IgG).
3. Calves that suckle large amounts of colostrum can be identified by measuring serum total protein levels and calves with high total proteins have high IgG1 levels. While this is somewhat correct, it is also important to remember that serum total proteins are taken after colostrum ingestion.

Serum total protein therefore will also be affected by the following:

1. Presuckle levels of serum proteins
2. Amount of protein absorbed (as described in terms of 1). The more colostrum absorbed, the more protein absorbed
3. The higher the level of IgG in colostrum, the higher the serum proteins.
4. Timing of blood collection.

As to the presuckle levels of serum proteins, some colostrum fed calves have lower total proteins than colostrum deprived calves (Tennant et al AJVR 1969 30: 345) likely due to differences in albumin concentrations which can vary form 1.9-3.4 g/100 ml in day old calves (Schultz et al 1971, 35:93). This is to a large degree why calves serum total protein can read high even before colostrum ingestion.

The figure below outlines the many other proteins in serum. As with measuring the total solids content of colostrum measuring the total proteins in calf serum assumes that if the serum protein is high that the serum IgG is high and visa versa. However, since the IgG is only one component (and not the major component), changes in the other fractions also affect the total serum protein level. In other words, if for example a calf is born with an initially higher albumin level, the serum total protein may read higher and IgG may not be indicative of the higher protein level.

In summary, it is important to measure immune status of our calves, however the most practical and accurate means of doing this is at the herd level. Rather than getting fixated on one individual calf’s result, lets ask ourselves, do I have healthy calves? By looking at immune transfer at the herd level, it can give us insight into the colostrum program and health status of our calves.

Serum Total Protein Tests

DO’S	DON’TS
✓ Evaluate a herd status of at least 12 calves ✓ Understand category levels ✓ Draw samples between 12- 36 hours ✓ Use it to get a general evaluation of your maternal colostrum program	× Evaluate individual calves × Draw samples after 48 hours or on sick calves × Use STP to pay calf premiums × Use it to test colostrum replacer program success

 

Mike Nagorske, DVM.

Director of Research, SCCL
[email protected]

Newborn lambs and kids require colostrum at birth as a sole source of nutrition. When the dam cannot provide enough high quality colostrum, producers now have a highly effective and convenient alternative.

 

What is colostrum?

Colostrum is the first secretion produced by the doe/ewe’s mammary gland, and is the key and most important source of nutrition for the newborn. This milk is an important component for the survival and health of the offspring, not only because of its high nutritional values, but also because it is a source of antibodies that helps development and protects from infections. Since it is an energy-rich source, it helps the newborns maintain their body temperature in order to survive. The colostrum also contributes to the kid/lamb body and organ growth and development, as well as their future milk production performance due to its diverse components such as bioactive factors, cells and hormones. Feeding high-quality colostrum in sufficient quantity immediately after birth protects the neonate, both in the short and long term. Ideally, each newborn should be fed colostrum as soon as possible (within 30 minutes) after birth, taking care not to exceed more than two hours after birth for this first ingestion.

Because of the type of the ruminant’s placenta, the transfer of passive immunoglobulin from the mother to the foetus during pregnancy is impaired. Therefore, colostrum is the sole source of initial acquired immunity. Thus, the percentage of newborn kids/lambs’ survival depends on the access of colostrum during the first hours after birth.

When and how much colostrum?

Morbidity and mortality of kids and lambs are a global challenge that affects their welfare and productivity on the farm. Providing adequate quantities of colostrum is key to reducing losses that may occur due to infectious diseases that harms newborns. In most intensive dairy farms, lambs and kids are separated from their mothers immediately after birth and transferred to an artificial rearing unit. Early access to colostrum that is of good quality, enough quantity and is fed as quickly as possible, is essential for their health, since the lack of adequate passive immunity from the dam to the offspring is the main cause of morbidity and mortality in small ruminants.

Lambs and kids must receive at least 50 ml/kg of good colostrum (>25% Brix) as soon as possible after birth. This first feeding must not exceed 2 hours after nascency. In 24 hours, a newborn lamb/kid must receive the equivalent of 200 ml/kg body weight in colostrum (AHDB) or at least 30g of IgG. Thus, a 3 kg newborn should get ideally at least 600 ml of colostrum on its first day of life. This amount can be divided into two or three meals. However, if this amount is not possible, the suggested intake to secure adequate passive immune transfer is between 10-15% of the newborn body weight. That means that the 3 kg kid/lamb should get at least 450 ml divided in two to three times during the first day of life.

Difficulties regarding colostrum may arise, due to poor quality, lack of adequate quantity, or even due to short of farm staff to help providing colostrum quickly. All these problems can harm newborns’ health and expose them to infections and low development in their first months of life. As a result, protocols have been developed for the administration of dried colostrum, which can help ensure that newborns receive sufficient amounts of high-quality colostrum.

Can I use dried cow colostrum?

The use of commercial bovine-dried colostrum already exists in several rearing units. Studies have shown the high efficiency in the absorption of IgG antibodies that originate both in bovine colostrum and sheep/goat colostrum. This means that cow colostrum can be provided to newborn kids and lambs and show excellent results.

Using a whole bovine colostrum substitute reduces preweaning morbidity and mortality, as well as decreases the use of antibiotics. This results in a better daily weight gain, and increases the number of lambs/kids marketed. In addition, colostrum is known to protect against diarrhea, improve overall health and weight gain.

 

 

Juliana Mergh Leão, DVM, MSc., DSc.

Veterinary Technical Specialist, SCCL
[email protected]

 

Haim Leibovich, PhD.

Consultant, Small Ruminant Production Systems
[email protected]

 

Joana Palhares Campolina, DVM, MsC, DsC.

Veterinarian/Research Veterinarian
[email protected]

 

There are plenty of paste products on the market that offer a quick solution to a long list of challenges faced by calves. Do they really work, and if not, what should I be giving my calves instead?

INTRO

As Director of Veterinary Technical Services for Saskatoon Colostrum Company, I often get asked my opinion on the various tubes of paste that are on the market and how they compare to colostrum replacement and supplementation. To have this conversation, it is important to understand what the producer’s goals are and how they are looking to apply a paste on their operation. Are they seeking a paste that provides an energy source or maybe one that contains a direct fed microbial? Or are they wanting a colostrum (immunoglobulin) supplement? When we look at these goals individually, we can usually see these tubes fall short of delivering the desired results.

ENERGY

Most of the tubes on the market provide a negligible amount of protein (0-3.5g CP) and fat (0-4g CF). Oftentimes, the fat found in these tubes are alternative fats like corn oil, tallow, or others which is a less bioavailable fat than colostral fat. Even those that contain colostral fat, contain such a low inclusion that it provides very little benefit. To contrast, if we look at whole colostrum, it will contain 168-672g of crude protein and 70-280g of crude fat in the form of colostral fat depending on the dose delivered to the calf.

DIRECT-FED MICROBIAL

The commensal gut flora population in a calf’s gastrointestinal tract is typically in the thousands in different species. Most direct-fed microbial (DFM) pastes deliver 1-3 species of key gut bacteria. Colostrum contains over 40 natural prebiotics that support all the strains of bacteria.

COLOSTRUM SUPPLEMENT + IMMUNITY

Calves need to receive 300g of IgG in the first few hours of life to thrive. When it comes to immunoglobulin concentration in these tube products, they fall short of delivering any impactful amount of IgG. Most “Colostrum Supplement” tubes deliver in 3.5-13g of IgG. Again, when we look at colostrum in comparison it will provide much more IgG antibody in the range of 50-200g depending on the dose delivered. In conclusion, whole bovine colostrum is the best source of immunoglobulins and nutrients that can be delivered to a calf. As producers look at their options for improving calf health, colostrum management should be at the forefront.

 

 

Dr. Travis White, DVM.

Director of Veterinary Technical Services, SCCL
[email protected]

When it comes to feeding colostrum, there are two methods producers can use: esophageal tube feeder or nipple bottle. Time, equipment and personal preference influence the decision to use one of these two methods. This month’s Colostrum Counsel discusses the effects of esophageal tube vs. bottle feeding colostrum in newborn calves.

 

The Colostrum Counsel:
Esophageal Tube vs. Bottle Feeding Colostrum

Feeding good-quality colostrum to newborn calves within the first hours of life is critical to their health and success. Colostrum can be delivered to the calf by one of two methods: esophageal tube feeder or nipple bottle. Tube feeding is typically considered as a more time-efficient method, as it only takes a matter of minutes to feed a large volume of colostrum. In contrast, feeding colostrum through a nipple bottle takes more time, yet it is considered “more natural” as it is mimics the calf suckling from the dam.

Although tube-feeding is a time efficient method, there is concern that feeding colostrum via tube may result in colostrum entering the rumen, which would delay the delivery of colostrum to the intestine. In particular, two previous studies suggested that colostrum might enter the rumen when using a tube feeder, as tube-fed calves have lower blood IgG concentrations than calves fed with a nipple bottle (Kaske et al., 2005; Godden at al., 2009). However, these studies did not actually measure the “abomasal emptying rate,” which is the rate at which the meal empties into the intestinal tract from the abomasum. Moreover, although there is an abundance of factors that may be affected by colostrum feeding method, previous studies have only focused on how feeding method can affect IgG.

With these large knowledge gaps to fill, researchers at the University of Alberta sought out to determine if feeding colostrum with an esophageal tube would affect abomasal emptying rates, as well as blood IgG, glucose, insulin, and gut hormone (glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) and GLP-2) concentrations compared to calves fed colostrum through a nipple bottle.

Methods

In order to conduct the study (Desjardins-Morrissette et al., 2018), twenty Holstein bull calves were either fed 3L of colostrum through a nipple bottle (BOTTLE calves) or 3L of colostrum through an esophageal tube (TUBE calves). Regardless of the feeding method, both groups were fed the same colostrum (Headstart, SCCL, delivering 200g of total IgG) at 2 hours of life. After the colostrum meal, calves were fed 3L of pasteurized whole milk at 12 hours of life via nipple bottle, and every 12 hours thereafter. In order to collect frequent blood samples after the colostrum meal to estimate abomasal emptying rates, as well as blood IgG, glucose, insulin and GLP-1 and GLP-2 concentrations, a jugular catheter was inserted at 1 hour of life.

IgG and Abomasal Emptying

In summary, no differences were detected in IgG concentrations or abomasal emptying rates between TUBE and BOTTLE calves (Table 1). A previous study (Godden et al., 2009) only found a decrease in IgG concentration when 1.5L of colostrum was tube-fed, not when 3L of colostrum was tube-fed. As the rumen of a pre-weaning calf has been estimated to hold up to 400ml of fluid (Chapman et al., 1986), the authors hypothesize that the fluid that remains in the rumen will not affect IgG concentrations or abomasal emptying when tube-feeding 3L of colostrum. Basically, when a small volume (e.g. 1.5L) of colostrum is fed with a tube, a larger proportion of that meal (~26%) will remain in the rumen and when a large volume (e.g. 3L) is fed, only a small proportion of the meal (~13%) will remain in the rumen and likely not affect IgG concentrations.

It is also important to note that high-quality colostrum was fed in this study. In particular, each calf received 200g of IgG in a 3L feeding, which is well above the minimum recommended amount (100g). It is unknown whether feeding colostrum of varying quality may have affected the results observed in this study. Regardless, the authors suggest that if an adequate volume of good quality colostrum is fed and if tubing is done properly, then both tube and bottle-feeding calves colostrum should result in adequate passive transfer of immunity.

Glucose and Insulin Concentrations

Tube-feeding colostrum to calves increased both the glucose and insulin area under the curve (AUC) compared to calves that were bottle-fed colostrum (Table 1). All calves were fed the same colostrum, and thus the same amount of lactose (~2.7%, Godden et al., 2009) and glucose. Therefore, if this difference is not due to feeding different amounts of glucose, then it is likely due to tube-fed calves consuming their colostrum meal in less time (5.2 min) than bottle fed calves (17.6 min) (Table 1). In cattle, it has been demonstrated that 30% of glucose is utilized in the small intestine, while the remaining 70% is digested and appears in the blood (Richards et al., 1999). Since TUBE calves consumed their colostrum in less time, the initial time colostrum entered the small intestine was sooner. This could have resulted in more glucose entering the bloodstream and less being utilized by the small intestine. As a result, TUBE calves had higher glucose and insulin concentrations.

Interestingly, TUBE calves also consumed a higher volume of milk by bottle (2.96 L) during the first milk meal when compared to BOTTLE calves (2.47 L) (Table 1). The authors speculate that perhaps TUBE calves may have consumed more milk by bottle during the first milk meal because less glucose was used by the small intestine after being fed colostrum and the small intestine may have had a higher demand for nutrients at the time of the first milk meal.

Glucagon-like Peptide 1 and 2 Concentrations

Prior to this study, blood concentrations of GLP-1 and GLP-2 have never been reported in newborn calves, let alone in response to colostrum feeding. Although no treatment effect was observed for GLP-1 and GLP-2, a significant time effect was seen after the colostrum meal (Figure 1). GLP-2 is known for stimulating gut development (Taylor-Edwards et al., 2011), while GLP-1 has been shown to increase blood insulin concentrations in calves, which results in the uptake of glucose for energy use (Fukumori et al., 2012a). Secretion of these hormones from the small intestine is stimulated by nutrients, such as lipids and carbohydrates (Burrin et al., 2001), and thus feeding colostrum can initiate their secretion in the immature neonatal calf gut. Therefore, although no treatment effect was observed this study suggests that colostrum could have beneficial effects on the gut development of the calf through the action of these gut-peptide hormones.

Take Home Messages

No differences were observed in abomasal emptying, blood IgG, GLP-1 and GLP-2 concentrations when calves were fed 3L of colostrum via an esophageal tube-feeder or a nipple bottle. Yet, tube-feeding calves resulted in higher blood glucose concentrations and consumption of an increased amount of the first milk meal compared to bottle-fed calves. These results may have occurred due to tube-fed calves having less glucose available as an energy substrate for the small intestine, but warrants further research.

Amanda Fischer, MSc.

SCCL and Research Assistant at the University of Alberta
[email protected]

CO-AUTHOR
Mariah Desjardins-Morrissette, MSc.

 

References
Desjardins-Morrissette, M., J.K. van Niekerk, D. Haines, T. Sugino, M. Oba, and M.A. Steele. 2018. The effect of tube vs. bottle feeding colostrum on IgG absorption, abomasal emptying and plasma hormone concentrations in newborn calves. J. Dairy Sci. 101(5):4168-4179.
Burrin, D.G., Petersen, Y., Stoll, B., Sanglld, P. 2001. Glucagon-like peptide 2: a nutrient-responsive gut growth factor. J. Nutr. 131: 709-712.
Chapman, H.W., Butler, D.G., Newell, M. 1986. The route of liquids administered to calves by esophageal feeder. Can. J. Vet. Res. 50(1): 84-87.
Fukumori, R., Mita, T., Sugino, T., Obitsu, T., Taniguchi, K. 2012. Plasma concentrations and effects of glucagon-like peptide-1 (7-36) amide in calves before and after weaning. Domest. Anim. Endocrinol. 43: 299-306.
Kaske, M., Werner, A., Schberth, H.J., Rehage, J., Kehler, W. 2005. Colostrum management in calves: effects of drenching vs. bottle feeding. J. Anim. Physiol. Anim. Nutr. 89(3-6): 151-157.
Godden, S.M., Haines, D.M., Konkol, K., Peterson, J. 2009. Improving passive transfer of immunoglobulins in calves. II: Interaction between feeding method and volume of colostrum fed. J. Dairy Sci. 92 (4): 1758-1764.
Richards, C. J. 1999. Influence of small intestinal protein on carbohydrate assimilation and metabolism in beef cattle. Ph.D. Diss. Univ. Kentucky.
Taylor-Edwards, C.C., Burrin, D.G., Holst, J.J., Mcleod, K.R., Harmon, D.L. 2011. Glucagon-like peptide-2 (GLP-2) increases small intestinal blood flow and mucosal growth in ruminating calves. J. Dairy Sci. 94: 888-898.

 

Most of SCCL’s products are designated as “Veterinary Biologics”. This important classification ensures that our products meet the highest regulatory standards placed upon colostrum products globally.

What is a Veterinary Biologic?

Veterinary Biologics are typically defined as “animal health products such as vaccines, antibody products, and in vitro diagnostic test kits that are used for the prevention, treatment, or diagnosis of infectious diseases in animals”. Veterinary Biologics specifically stimulate or involve an immunologic response to infectious disease(s) unlike Veterinary Drugs which have a different mode of action. Bovine dried colostrum may be categorized as a Veterinary Biologic, Feed or Feed Additive depending on what country the product is registered or sold in; however, because SCCL manufactures our bovine dried colostrum products in Canada, we are regulated by the Canadian Food Inspection (CFIA), Canadian Centre for Veterinary Biologics (CCVB). Bovine colostrum is sold only as a Veterinary Biologic in Canada and must comply with the regulations and standards for Veterinary Biologics regardless of whether SCCL sells in Canada or exports our calf, lamb and goat products around the world. As a Veterinary Biologic, bovine colostrum is categorized as an antibody product (specifically, Bovine Immunoglobulin G or Bovine IgG) with the claim to “aid in the prevention of failure of passive transfer (FPT)” in newborn calves, lambs or goats.

How is the designation earned?

The facility manufacturing the Veterinary Biologic AND each product produced by the facility requires licensing by the CFIA-CCVB. Facility or Establishment Licenses and Product Licenses are required to be renewed on an annual basis once initial approval is granted. To gain licensure, a comprehensive application must be submitted, reviewed and approved by the CFIA-CCVB that proves each product meets the requirements of purity, potency, safety and efficacy in the target species and according to the label’s directions before the product can be sold or distributed in Canada or exported around the world. The manufacturing facility or establishment must undergo a comprehensive on-site inspection including contract facilities that are used for testing, packaging, storage or contract manufacturing of the finished product. This establishment pre-licensing inspection is performed the CFIA-CCVB, and physical and administrative inspections are also required on an on-going basis of the licensed establishment and their contracts to maintain both Establishment and Product licenses. Currently, SCCL is inspected by the CFIA-CCVB at a minimum of every 12 months.

What criteria do Veterinary Biologic products need to meet to earn it?

Colostrum as a Veterinary Biologics must meet requirements to ensure that it is pure or free from defined micro-organisms with specific specifications or limits and with tests approved by the regulatory authority; that it is potent and the active ingredient or Bovine IgG is functional and present at the indicated amount that has been proven to be effective; that it is safe to use in the target species and should not cause unwarranted reactions; and that it is effective and provides the protection or benefit that is expected and stated by the approved claim when used as directed. Each of the purity, potency, safety and efficacy of a Veterinary Biologic must be proven to the regulatory authority prior to licensing by submitting robust research data, test results and observations that are reviewed by the regulatory authority and measured against a defined set of standards or requirements.

 

Manuel F. Chamorro, DVM, MS, PhD, DACVIM
Assistant Professor of Livestock and Field Service, College of Veterinary Medicine, Kansas State University, and Technical Veterinary Consultant, SCCL

Use of antibiotics in agriculture is an added cost to the producer and growing concern to consumers. Feeding a colostrum replacer product may reduce the need for antibiotic treatments in pre-weaned calves.

The increased concern of modern societies on the emergence of antibiotic-resistance bacteria has led to regulatory institutions to limit to a minimum the number of antibiotics that can be used in food producing animals for therapeutic and preventive treatment of infectious diseases. The sometimes unreasonable use of antimicrobials in beef and dairy operations could result in potential adverse effects on human health as the risk of transmission of resistant microorganisms to the human population could potentially increase [Silbergeld et al. 2008]. Prophylactic and methaphylactic administration of antibiotics to prevent disease in calves early after arrival to feedlots and dairy calf ranches is not uncommon. At the same time as overuse of antibiotics is evident in some situations, the discovery and development of new antimicrobials to treat old and novel infections in human and veterinary medicine has decreased in the last years. It is estimated that the antibiotic shortage increased around 283% during 2006 and 2010 [Stanton 2013; Borchardt and Rolston 2013].

To overcome the limited availability of antibiotics to treat food producing animals and at the same time the high morbidity and mortality rates observed in some cattle operations such as feedlots and dairy calf rearing farms, the development of alternatives to antibiotics such as antibacterial vaccines, immunomodulatory agents, and antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) have been proposed [Seal et al. 2013]. Maternal colostrum provides specific immunity to the newborn calf through immunoglobulins (IgG) that effectively protect against infectious microorganisms during the first weeks of life. In addition to IgG, maternal colostrum provides high concentrations of immunomodulatory factors (cytokines), antibacterial peptides (Lactoferrin), growth factors (EGF, IGF-1), and vitamins that enhance immune responses and exert antimicrobial functions in the young calf [Hagiwara et al. 2000; Yamanaka et al. 2003]. Colostrum intake in newborn calves should occur immediately after birth because the ability of the calf intestine to absorb IgG decreases progressively after 6 hours of life. Calves with adequate passive transfer of IgG during the first 24 hours of life demonstrate lower morbidity and mortality rates compared with calves with failure of passive transfer of IgG (FPT) [Berge et al. 2005]; however, the benefits of maternal colostrum components including immunoglobulins (IgG, IgA, IgM), immunomodulatory factors, vitamins, growth factors, and antimicrobial molecules could be prolonged during the pre-weaning period through continuous administration of maternal colostrum in the calf ration. Studies have demonstrated that although absorption of IgG after 24 hours of life does not occur in the calf, the effects of immunoglobulins and other immune factors present in colostrum provide local immunity in the gastrointestinal tract and might prevent infection caused by enteric viruses and bacteria [Snodgrass et al. 1982]. One study demonstrated that when 70 g of a dried colostrum-colostrum replacer product containing 10 g of IgG mixed in the milk replacer ration was administered twice daily from 1 to 14 days of age to dairy calves with partial or complete FPT, the number of days with diarrhea and the number of antibiotic treatments was significantly decreased when compared with a control group of calves with FPT that did not receive colostrum replacer supplement [Berge et al. 2009].

In a more recent trial at SCCL, we administered 150 g of a dried-colostrum-colostrum replacer mixed into the milk replacer twice daily from days 1 to 14 to Holstein calves in a calf ranch and compared the incidence of disease (diarrhea and pneumonia) and total number of antibiotic treatments with a control group of calves that did not receive colostrum replacer supplement in their ration. All calves used in this trial had adequate passive transfer of IgG at the start of the trial (IgG in serum > 10 g/L). The overall incidence of disease in calves supplemented with colostrum replacer was reduced by 40%; additionally, the number of antibiotic treatments in the group of calves that received colostrum replacer was reduced 4 times (Chamorro and Haines 2015, non-published data). It is possible that components present in the dried colostrum-colostrum replacer such as IgG, immune factors, vitamins, and other antimicrobial peptides such as Lactoferrin could have played a role increasing local and systemic immunity in calves receiving supplemental colostrum. The results of these studies suggest that colostrum supplementation of dairy calves during the first 2 weeks of life independently of passive transfer status reduces presentation of disease and minimizes prophylactic and therapeutic use of antibiotics before weaning.

 

Manuel F. Chamorro, DVM, MS, PhD, DACVIM .

Director of Technical Services and Clinical Research, SCCL

 

References

– Silbergeld EK, Graham J, Price LB. Industrial food animal production, antimicrobial resistance, and human health. Annu Rev Public Health. 2008;29:151-169.

– Stanton TB. A call for antibiotic alternatives research. Trends Microbiol. 2013;21(3):111-113

– Borchardt RA, Rolston KV. Antibiotic shortages: effective alternatives in the face of a growing problem. JAAPA. 2013; 26(2):13-18.

– Seal BS, Lillehoj HS, Donovan DM, Gay CG. Alternatives to antibiotics: a symposium on the challenges and solutions for animal production. See comment in PubMed Commons belowAnim Health Res Rev. 2013; 14(1):78-87

– Hagiwara K, Kataoka S, Yamanaka H, Kirisawa R, Iwai H. Detection of cytokines in bovine colostrum. Vet Immunol Immunopathol. 2000; 76(3-4):183-190.

– Yamanaka H, Hagiwara K, Kirisawa R, Iwai H. Proinflammatory cytokines in bovine colostrum potentiate the mitogenic response of peripheral blood mononuclear cells from newborn calves through IL-2 and CD25 expression. Microbiol Immunol. 2003; 47(6):461-468.

– Berge AC, Lindeque P, Moore DA, Sischo WM. A clinical trial evaluating prophylactic and therapeutic antibiotic use on health and performance of preweaned calves. J Dairy Sci. 2005; 88(6):2166-2177.

– Snodgrass DR, Stewart J, Taylor J, Krautil FL, Smith ML. Diarrhoea in dairy calves reduced by feeding colostrum from cows vaccinated with rotavirus. Res Vet Sci. 1982; 32(1):70-73.

– Berge AC, Besser TE, Moore DA, Sischo WM. Evaluation of the effects of oral colostrum supplementation during the first fourteen days on the health and performance of preweaned calves. J Dairy Sci. 2009; 92(1):286-295.

When it comes to on-farm calf management, the producer’s main goal is to have healthy, productive calves that will eventually become high-producing cows. To achieve this goal, certain techniques should be used on farm to ensure the calf can reach its full potential. In this issue of The Colostrum Counsel, producers can learn how to assess the quality of colostrum using a Brix refractometer, as well as how to blood sample young calves.

 

The Colostrum Counsel: A practical guide to on farm techniques to ensure healthy calves

We know that feeding insufficient amounts of IgG to calves during the first day of life results in the failure of passive transfer, which compromises the health of the calf. However, only a small percentage of producers actually assess the quality of colostrum, with most of them doing so by visual inspection only. It is essential to feed colostrum containing at least 50 g of IgG per litre, yet it has been reported that 16-29% of samples actually contain less than this amount (Bartier et al., 2015; Quigley et al., 2013; Morrill et al., 2012). So, how can we measure IgG concentrations in a time and cost efficient way on farm to ensure passive immunity?

Using a Brix Refractometer

A Brix refractometer is an efficient and user-friendly way to determine the quality of colostrum. A refractometer measures the refractive index of sucrose (sugar) in a solution and for this reason has historically been used in the wine, fruit juice and sugar industry. In regards to colostrum, a Brix refractometer indirectly measures IgG concentrations by determining the amount of total solids. A recent study suggested that a Brix value of 23 percent should be used as the cut-off point for adequate quality colostrum (Bartier et al., 2015). Optical Brix refractometers are fairly inexpensive ($100-$200 CAD) and are just as accurate as a digital Brix refractometer, which is less cost-efficient ($400+).

To use an optical Brix refractometer:

1. Open the sample cover and place a few drops of colostrum on the sample area. Close the cover when finished.

2. While looking in the scope of the refractometer, hold it at a 90 degree angle to a light source.

3. The Brix value can be read between the light and dark areas.

4. When finished, wipe off the entire sample and clean the area before testing a different sample.

Image 1.
Needle, needle transfer and serum vacutainer tube.

 

Image 2.
Position of jugular vein on an unshaved calf.

 

Image 3.
Position of jugular vein on a shaved calf.

 

Blood Sampling Calves

Now that you know how to test the IgG in your colostrum, you can also learn how to check if successful passive transfer did indeed occur in the calf. While blood can be drawn during the first week of life to assess IgG status, it can also be drawn to monitor the presence of disease on your farm at any point and therefore is a useful skill to possess. Drawing blood from the calf is an easy technique to learn and should not be stressful to yourself or the calf.

Although blood is typically drawn from cows using the tail-vein, this vein is too small in calves and thus the jugular vein is used instead. The jugular vein is not very large and therefore an 18- or 20-gauge, 1-inch transfer needle should be used. The most common way to collect a sample is by using a serum vacuum tube, so a special holder is also needed (Image 1). The needles, holders and tubes should be available at local animal health stores and can also be ordered online.

Once you have all the supplies, the calf can be blood sampled following the steps below:

1. Back the rear of the calf into a corner. This will prevent the calf from moving too much while you are collecting the sample. Leaning over the calf, place one hand at the base of the calf’s neck, and use your other arm to extend the calf’s neck across your upper thigh (Image 4).
2. In order to find the jugular vein, firmly place your left hand at the bottom of the calf’s neck to enlarge the vein (Image 2). You should feel the vein “pop up” in the jugular groove. If this is your first time attempting a jugular vein sample you can also shave the jugular groove area on the calf’s neck until you are confident in the location of the jugular vein (Image 3).
3. Once you have located the vein, you can puncture the vein with the needle. Do not puncture directly perpendicular to the vein – the needle should be inserted almost parallel to the vein (Image 6). Once the needle is inserted, you can attach the vacuum tube to the holder. Blood should flow easily into the tube. If blood does not flow easily, you can gently adjust the needle by moving it back and forth until blood begins to flow. If the needle comes completely out of the vein with the vacuum tube attached, the vacuum will be ruined and you will need to use a new tube during your second attempt. A calf should only be poked a maximum of three times on each jugular vein. If you are having difficulty keeping the calf still, ask for assistance restraining the calf. Dehydrated or sick calves may have smaller veins that require less insertion of the needle into the vein in order to obtain blood flow.
4. Allow the blood to flow into the tube until an adequate sample is collected. Once finished, gently remove the needle from the vein and apply pressure on the insertion site for ~5-10 seconds. This will prevent a hematoma (a pooling of blood) from forming over the jugular vein.
5. Once finished, dispose properly of the needle and store the blood tube. Ensure you use a new needle between each calf.

After you have collected your blood sample, you can either send your sample away for analysis of IgG content or you can do so yourself. All you need to estimate the IgG concentration of blood is a Brix refractometer, which you may already have for estimation of IgG content in colostrum, as well as a centrifuge ($100-$400 CAD) to spin the blood. After collection from the calf, the serum vacuum tube can be stored at room temperature for 1-3 hours to allow for blood clotting. After clotting, centrifuge the blood sample at a low speed (e.g. 3000 x g) for 20 minutes. To estimate IgG content, simply pipette a few drops of serum supernatant (the clear layer) onto the sample cover and read the Brix value. A Brix percentage is highly correlated (93%) with serum IgG concentrations and the cut-off point to be used for successful passive transfer is 8.4 percent (Deelen et al., 2014).

Take Home Message

Learning how to blood sample calves and estimate the content of IgG in blood and colostrum using a Brix refractometer are easy skills to learn and the use of these techniques is a worthwhile investment of both your time and money. Using these skills on farm ensures that you are feeding the best colostrum and gives you piece of mind knowing that successful passive transfer occurs in your calves to reduce the risk of disease on your farm.

 

 

Amanda Fischer, MSc.

SCCL and Research Assistant at the University of Alberta
[email protected]

 

References
Bartier, A.L., M.C. Windeyer, and L. Doepel. 2015. Evaluation of on-farm tools for colostrum quality measurement. J. Dairy Sci. 98:1878-1884.
Deelen, S.M., T.L. Ollivett, D.M. Haines, and K.E. Leslie. 2014. Evaluation of a Brix refractometer to estimate serum immunoglobulin G concentration in neonatal dairy calves. J. Dairy Sci. 97(6):3838-3844.
Morrill, K.M., E. Conrad. A. Lago, J. Campbell, J. Quigley, and H. Tyler. 2012. Nationwide evaluation of quality and composition of colostrum on dairy farms in the United States. J. Dairy Sci. 95:3997-4005.
Quigley, J.A., A. Lago, C. Chapman, P. Erickson, and J. Polo. 2013. Evaluation of the Brix refractometer to estimate immunoglobulin G concentration in bovine colostrum. J. Dairy Sci. 96:1148-1155.

Did you know other factors beyond IgG can attribute to a healthy gut in your calves? Oligosaccharides in colostrum and transition milk serve as potential mediators of a healthy calf gut. In this issue of The Colostrum Counsel, we will explain just how these factors work in optimizing the overall health of your calves.

 

The Colostrum Counsel: Oligosaccharides Explained

Calves rely on the timely feeding of good-quality colostrum to provide them with passive immunity, since there is no transfer of immunoglobulins from the dam to the calf in utero. Due to the importance of passive immunity, most research in bovine colostrum and transition milk has focused on the quantity and quality of IgG. Yet, colostrum is also rich in additional nutrients and bioactive factors that are necessary for the proper development and maturation of the gut. These factors are just beginning to gain popularity in the field of colostrum research. Among these bioactive factors are oligosaccharides (OS). These molecules are essentially “simple sugars” and have been hypothesized to play a key role in the development of the newborn gut. In particular, OS help establish healthy gut bacteria, inhibit pathogenic bacteria, and may also enhance the absorption of IgG from colostrum into the blood.

Structures and Concentrations in Colostrum

As mentioned previously, OS are simple-sugar compounds with lactose being the core structure of all OS. In order to create structurally different molecules, fucose (neutral charge) or sialic acid (acidic charge) residues are added onto the lactose core in the mammary gland. Approximately 40 different OS compounds have been identified in bovine colostrum and milk, with the majority (>70%) of bovine OS having a sialic acid residue attached (Tao et al., 2008; Figure 1). Bovine OS are different from OS produced by humans, as the carbon chains of human OS are longer and only a small amount (5-15%) have a sialic acid group attached (Ninonuevo et al., 2006).

The most abundant OS in bovine colostrum is 3’sialyllactose (3’SL), which is 4 times higher in colostrum compared to mature milk, followed by 6’sialyllactosamine (6’SLN) with the second highest concentration (Martin-Sosa et al., 2003; Figure 1). In contrast to IgG, the concentrations of OS do not decline as rapidly after the colostrum milking. In fact, it has been shown that 3’SL, 6’SLN and 6’sialyllactose (6’SL) have higher concentrations at 2 days after calving compared to 7 days after calving (Nakamura et al., 2003; Figure 2).

The majority of farms often feed 1-2 meals of colostrum after birth, followed immediately by an abrupt transition to milk replacer or whole milk. The elevated concentrations of OS, along with an abundance of additional bioactive molecules in transition milk (milkings 2-6) demonstrate that there is likely value in feeding transition milk to the gut health of young calves on farm.

Functions of Oligosaccharides

The majority of OS can reach the intestine quickly since they can resist the acidic pH of the stomach and cannot be broken down by any of the calf’s gut enzymes. Most researchers assumed the majority of the OS would reach the large intestine in tact, however Janschter-Krenn et al. (2013) demonstrated these compounds can actually change structure and may play a role in the small intestine as well. So, what exactly are these small simple sugars doing in the small and large intestines?

Energy Source for Healthy Gut Bacteria

Several beneficial groups of bacteria in the small intestine and colon have a variety of enzymes that allow them to break down OS and utilize them as an energy source. It has been shown that the beneficial bacteria Bifidobacteria can consume 3’SL, the major OS in bovine colostrum, to promote its growth (Yu et al., 2013). Moreover, recent studies demonstrated that newborn calves have a higher amount of Bifidobacteria in the small intestine when higher concentrations of OS are provided in colostrum (Fischer et al., 2018; Malmuthuge et al., 2015).

A higher amount of Bifidobacteria in the calf intestine likely contributes to an overall healthy gut bacterial community, since they are able to produce short chain fatty acids that have positive effects on colon cells, as well as stabilize the gut mucosal barrier and improve the immune system of the gut to prevent the overgrowth of pathogenic bacteria (Picard et al., 2005; Yasui et al., 1995; Boffa et al., 1992). Additionally, another beneficial group, known as Bacteroides, can uniquely use the sialic acid portion of the OS to promote their growth and establishment in the neonatal gut (Marcobal et al., 2011).

Inhibition of Pathogenic Bacteria

In addition to promoting the growth of beneficial bacteria, OS have also been shown to prevent pathogenic bacteria from establishing themselves in the gut. In order to invade the host tissues, pathogens must bind to sugars that are structurally similar to OS, known as “host glycans”, on the surface of intestinal cells. Since the structures of glycans and colostrum and milk OS are so similar, OS can act as “receptor decoys” and bind to the pathogen. This inhibits their ability to bind to the host and cause subsequent infection and disease (Zivkovic et al., 2011). Specifically, it has been demonstrated that two of the major OS in bovine colostrum and transition milk, 6’SL and 6’SLN, can block the binding of enterotoxigenic E. coli (Martin et al., 2002). Additional colostrum and milk OS can also bind to rotavirus (Huang et al., 2012), Vibrio cholera (Coppa et al., 2006), and Streptococcus pneumoniae (Andersson et al., 1986), which demonstrates their diverse capability to maintain a healthy and balanced gut microbial community.

Enhance Immune Function

As mentioned previously, beneficial gut bacteria can utilize colostrum and milk OS, which allows them to positively regulate the immune system through multiple pathways. For instance, bacteria that consume OS induce higher expressions of anti-inflammatory compounds and decrease pro-inflammatory compounds, compared to bacteria that consume an alternative energy source (Chiclowski et al., 2012). Bacteria that grow on OS can also up-regulate the amount of tight junction proteins between intestinal cells, which basically means they “tighten” the gaps so pathogenic bacteria cannot go between the intestinal cells and enter the blood stream (Chiclowski et al., 2012; Ewaschuk et al., 2008).

One fascinating aspect about the sialic acid portion of an OS is when sialic acid is bound to the intestine, it can actually enhance the binding of IgG to the intestinal cell, as well as its uptake into the cell (Gill et al., 1999). This may explain why bovine colostrum has such a high abundance of OS with sialic acid residues compared to human colostrum, in which only a small portion have sialic acid. In humans, there is passive transfer of immunoglobulins during pregnancy from the mother to the fetus, where as in bovine animals, the calf can only obtain IgG from colostrum since there is no passive transfer during pregnancy. Therefore, since the passive transfer of IgG is one of the most important factors in promoting the health and survival of the newborn calf, the high abundance of sialic acid in colostrum may actually be present to assist IgG in gaining access to the calf’s blood stream¬–kick-starting the immune system.

What about mannan-oligosaccharides?

Mannan-oligosaccharides (MOS) are frequently supplemented to the calf in milk replacer (e.g. Bio-Mos®) during the first weeks of life. In contrast to bovine-derived OS, mannan-OS are derived from the cell wall of yeast, namely Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Mannan-OS have “brush-like” structures which allow them to attach to pathogenic bacteria, such as Salmonella and E. coli, thus blocking them from binding to the intestinal cell wall and causing subsequent infection. Calves fed MOS in milk replacer show a reduction in faecal E. coli counts (Jacques et al., 1994), improvements in fecal score (Morrison et al., 2010), and better growth performance (Sellars et al., 1997).

Due to the positive effects observed when supplemented in milk replacer, researchers sought out to determine if similar effects might also be seen when supplemented in colostrum or colostrum replacer. Unfortunately, a study that supplemented MOS in colostrum replacer found no effect on passive transfer at 24h of life, or on the incidence of disease (Robichaud et al., 2014).

Moreover, additional recent studies that supplemented MOS in fresh bovine colostrum actually found a negative effect on passive transfer when compared to calves fed unsupplemented colostrum (Brady et al., 2015; Short et al., 2016). The structure of an oligosaccharide is a major determinant of biological function and the calf gut is evolutionarily tailored to respond to compounds secreted by the dam into colostrum. Since bovine-derived OS are “more natural” for the newborn dairy calf, it may be possible that their supplementation during the first days of life may lead to increased passive immunity and better gut health when compared to those supplemented with MOS.

Take Home Message

The high abundance of oligosaccharides produced by the dam into colostrum and transition milk can have positive effects on gut health, specifically by acting as an energy source for healthy gut bacteria, inhibiting pathogens, and by enhancing the immune system. Therefore, feeding transition milk or milk supplemented with a quality colostrum replacer may offer increased gut protection for the newborn calf. Additional research should focus on the possibility of supplementing OS in traditional milk replacers, or even in whole milk, to ensure maximum protection of the newborn calf gut.

 

Figures

 

Figure 1.
The structures of the two most abundant oligosaccharides in bovine colostrum and transition milk.

Figure 2.
A study conducted by Nakamura et al. (2003) determined the concentrations of the primary oligosaccharides (3’SL, 6’SL and 6’SLN) in colostrum, transition milk, and mature milk.

 

 

Amanda Fischer, MSc.

SCCL and Research Assistant at the University of Alberta
[email protected]

 

 

References
Andersson, B., O. Porras, L.A. Hanson, T. Lagergard, and C. Svanborg-Eden. 1986. Inhibition of attachment of Streptococcus pneumoniae and Haemophilus influenzae by human milk and receptor oligosaccharides. J. Infect. Dis. 153:232-237.
Boffa, L.C., J.R. Lupton, and M.R. Mariani. 1992. Modulation of colonic epithelial cell proliferation, histone acetylation, and luminal short chain fatty acids by variation of dietary fibre (wheat bran) in rats. Cancer Res. 52:5906-5912.
Brady, M.P., S.M. Godden, and D.M. Haines. 2015. Supplementing fresh bovine colostrum with gut-active carbohydrates reduces passive transfer of immunoglobulin G in Holstein dairy calves. J. Dairy Sci. 98:6415-6422.
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